Before the advent of clocks and calendars, people were more in tune with nature’s timing; without electrical lighting they woke when the sun rose and slept when it went down, and they followed the cycles of the seasons as opposed to being a slave to the 24/7 hectic lifestyle most of us follow today.
Following the cycles of nature; eight seasonal festivals have traditionally been celebrated throughout Europe, predating Christianity. These festivals are often referred to as sabbats, a word which originates from the Greek work ‘sabatu’ meaning to rest or pause. The English word ‘sabbath’ and the Hebrew ‘shabat’ both also originate from ‘sabatu’ Four of the festivals (the solstices and equinoxes) celebrate the power of the sun and the moon at the time. The other four festivals, are Celtic in origin, and are linked more with the annual cycle of planting and harvesting of crops. Traditionally the festivals also reflect the lifecycle of the gods and goddesses throughout the year.
Imbolc (pronounced ‘im’olk’) is also known as Oimelc, Imbolg, or Candlemass. It falls on the same day as Ireland’s feast of St Bridget (a Christian disguise for the goddess Brighid), and Groundhog day in America.
Imbolc is seen as a celebration of the first day of spring, and is traditionally celebrated in the first week of February, as its halfway through the 90 day seasonal period following the winter solstice (21st December). Imbolc and Oimelc are said to come from the old Gaelic word meaning ‘Ewes milk’, and is the time when ewes start lactating in preparation for giving birth to lambs, meaning there will soon be milk available for people to drink. Imbolc is also reported to mean ‘in the belly of the mother’ and represents potential for growth however it may be needed in your life.
Imbolc was important in the Celtic calendar, as winter stores of food were getting low, and the festival marked the beginning of a new farming season. Even though there may still be snow and frost on the ground, Imbolc marks the rebirth of nature and fertility, and a recognition of life beginning to stir and awaken within the earth. It is a celebration of the long winter darkness beginning to break, and the return to lighter and longerdays as the sun, and the young god it represents is getting stronger. A virgin goddess is said to govern this celebration, and her breasts fill with milk to nourish her young.
Rituals were performed at Imbolc to harness the divine energy, which they hoped would ensure a steady supply of food in the next six months. In the past candle lighting, was part of the ritual of this sabbat, hence being renamed ‘candlemass’ or mass of candles. In a group pagan ritual a young woman would wear a crown of lighted candles on her head. Feasting was also very much an element of the Celtic festivals and at a time when new lambs were born, a dish made from their docked tails was traditionally eaten. The ritual also includes the blessing and eating of diary foods to celebrate the life of the young god and his virgin mother. This practice was said to have been made popular by Scandinavians, sometime after the tenth century when the Vikings invaded Ireland, and adopted the ritual after they populated much of the island, and married many of the women.
Imbolc also falls on the same day as Ireland’s feast of St Bridget. Bridgid is the Celtic goddess of fire, inspiration and fertility, and daughter of Dagda. As Bridgid was the goddess of fire, Imbolc celebrations centre around the lighting of fires. Many of the poor in communities really looked forward to these festivals, as they were a chance for them to get together with friends and family and take a break from work. People had been celebrating these old ways for centuries. Christians, who were trying to gain more followers, found they could not compete with the allure of these traditions. Therefore the Christian church in a bid to win people over, decided it was easier to assimulate Bridgid into their own faith, and so St Bridgid was created. They also created many stories about her in the hope that people would leave these old beliefs, and start following Christianity. One of the rituals they created was dressing a sheaf of oats in female clothes, and setting it in a basket called Brids bed.
Snakes were also a symbol commonly associated with Imbolc. They represent rebirth, as they shed their skin and re-emerge in the spring after a winter’s hibernation. Celtic healers often appear with snakes, that are associated with rivers and healing springs as these are thought to be the entrances to the underworld, where the giant ‘Ouroborous’, the earth dragon lives. Snakes and serpents often appear on ‘torcs’, the sacred neck ornaments worn by Celtic kings, as they embody eternal life and the power of the earth. In Celtic knot work, snakes patterns are still very popular. The coiled serpent, with its tail in its mouth represents a circle of eternity and the cycles of the earth’s evolution and reincarnation. It is reported that in Ireland, at a time when the Christian church was trying to gain followers, the Druids who vehemently opposed the church, often had tamed snakes as they used their venom for healing mixtures. However led by the warrior St Patrick, the church finally won the battle for followers over the Druids.
We may now dismiss many of these old beliefs, traditions, and celebrations, as mere superstitions. However, how we can say our beliefs today are any more credulous, especially when many of our celebrations today surround Christianity, which has actually adopted and claimed much of the folklore of old as their own.
Imbolc represents the end of winter (actual and emotional), and is seen as good time for growth. It can be a good time for putting new ideas into practice, taking the first steps of a new project. With so much dis-ease and ill health caused by trying to keep up with demands of the fast pace of life today, maybe returning to some of the beliefs of old, and becoming more in tune with the timing of nature is not such a bad idea.
Friday, December 03, 2010
Wednesday, November 03, 2010
Samhain the festival of Wisdom Sunset 31 October to Sunset 2nd November
Before the advent of clocks and calendars, people were more in tune with nature’s timing; without electrical lighting they woke when the sun rose and slept when it went down, and they followed the cycles of the seasons as opposed to being a slave to the 24/7 hectic lifestyle most of us follow today.
Following the cycles of nature; eight seasonal festivals have traditionally been celebrated throughout Europe, predating Christianity. These festivals are often referred to as sabbats, a word which originates from the Greek work ‘sabatu’ meaning to rest or pause. The English word ‘sabbath’ and the Hebrew ‘shabat’ both also originate from ‘sabatu’ Four of the festivals (the solstices and equinoxes) celebrate the power of the sun and the moon at the time. The other four festivals, are Celtic in origin, and are linked more with the annual cycle of planting and harvesting of crops. Traditionally the festivals also reflect the lifecycle of the gods and goddesses throughout the year.
Samhain (pronounced sow-in) is Gaelic for ‘the summers end’ and is known as the Celtic New Year; it marks the start of the winter, and the beginning of shorter days and longer evenings. It is a time for introspection, reflecting on the past year, looking forward to the future, and possible spiritual growth.
While Samhain has been celebrated for centuries and has its origin in Pagan Celtic traditions, later on it was adopted by Christianity. The modern day Halloween comes from the Christian festival called All Hallows eve. This and the following two days; All Saints and All Souls day (1st and 2nd of November) were for remembering and honouring loved ones who had passed away. This custom still continues today, in Countries such as France Spain and Mexico. In France All Saints day is a public holiday, and it is traditional for people to dress up in finest clothes and visit family graves and decorate them with flowers.
Samhain traditionally celebrated on October 31st is the night when the veil between the spirit world and our world is at its thinnest, and the souls of our ancestors can return to our world. It is a time to celebrate wisdom old and new, when the past and future join together for one night, and the dead could return to warm themselves by the fires of the living. In earlier times families would decorate altars to honour their ancestors, with mementos of those who had passed away and harvest foods such as; pumpkins, apples, and breads. They would also open their windows and place garlic on the window sills to allow the good family dead to enter. It was also believed at this time that some of the living (especially poets) were able to enter the otherworld through doorways at ancient burial mounds or ‘sidhe’ such as; at the Hill of Tara in Ireland.
Also known as the Feast of the dead; death is a central theme of this festival. This does not mean however that it is a morbid event, as the ancient Celts believed death is not a thing to be feared. They valued old age for the wisdom it brings, and saw death as an accepted part of the cycle of life. As with the other Celtic festivals, Samhain was a time for communities to get together and celebrate, which they did by lighting sacred bonfires, sacrificing animals, and bringing harvest food to share in a communal dinner. They would also dress up in animal heads and skins.
Many of the Samhain traditions still continue today such as: the hollowing out of a pumpkin and putting a lighted candle inside. This was traditionally known as a Jack o Lantern: a name which derived from a legendary character called Jack, who upon escaping hell was forced to walk in limbo carrying a hot coal for all eternity. While the veil between the worlds were so thin, the other world could also release fairies and mischievous spirits, and the Jack o Lantern was thought to keep evil spirits away and protect people from harm. Placing the lighted pumpkin on a window sill, facing the road, for 3 days until dusk on the 3rd of November was also believed to welcome home family ancestors. Another theory is that pumpkin lanterns originate from the ancient Celts placing the skulls of their ancestors outside their doors at Samhain.
The practice of trick or treat has also evolved from a time where children used to visit houses, to ask for soul breads to decorate their family altars (bread foods were thought to a favourite of the spirits). Nowadays children visit houses collecting sweets for themselves to eat, which are certainly not intended to honour the dead. Another belief is that at Samhain, fairies would take advantage of the thin veil, and dress up as beggars, visiting houses asking for handouts. If they received food people would be rewarded, but if they slammed the doors in the fairies faces they would find out how mischievous fairies could be.
In the agricultural wheel of the year Samhain marks the final harvest, when animals were slaughtered, food was stored away for the long months ahead, and activity moved from outdoors to indoors by the warmth of the fire. Fire played an important part in the rituals that took place at Samhain. Cattle would be brought down from the hills and passed between two fires to purify and cleanse them, as well as to protect them from any evil spirits that may be lurking while the veil between the worlds was so thin. It was believed to be bad luck to take all of the harvest, as something should always be left to keep the connection between the land and its produce throughout the long winter. Protection from evil was very important to the ancient Celts, especially at Samhain and Beltane (the two turning points of the year) when it was thought that the spirit world was very close at hand, and these were days of much evil activity.
Samhain was believed to be the night when the God of the old year dies and returns to the underworld. It is reported that the goddess enters to be reunited with the god (for three days only), returning on the third day of the festival to prepare for his rebirth at the Winter Solstice.
Throughout the wheel of the year the Celtic triple goddess goes through 3 stages (virgin, mother and crone). The Goddess is now in the crone aspect. She is not to be feared as she is the same goddess who gave us life in the summer. She has moved through being a maiden/virgin ready for a sexual union with the god at Beltane (May 1st), and the earth mother, recognised by the making of corn dollies at Lughnassadh (August 1st). She is the now the older woman wise but stern, and has much knowledge she can share with us. She comes in the form of Cerridwen, Hecate, Arianrhod and Persephone among others and is often symbolised by the wise old owl who is not blinded by darkness and travels by night.
Many of the traditions of Samhain have been incorporated into Halloween today such as; placing pumpkin lanterns in windows, and dressing up and getting together with friends and family to celebrate. However it could be argued that the origins of Samhain have become a little lost. As we dress up as witches, vampires, and scary monsters it could be said our celebrations today illustrate our fascination with the macabre, evil and death. Samhain is however a celebration of the cycle of life. It celebrates the renewal and rebirth not only of the earth, but also of the gods and goddesses and of ourselves. Samhain reminds us death is not to be feared, and that it is from death that life emerges. As the veil between the spirit world and ours is its thinnest, Samhain is an opportunity to honour, remember and reconnect with loved ones who have passed away. It is celebration of ancient wisdom, a time to reflect on the past, and look forward into the future.
Following the cycles of nature; eight seasonal festivals have traditionally been celebrated throughout Europe, predating Christianity. These festivals are often referred to as sabbats, a word which originates from the Greek work ‘sabatu’ meaning to rest or pause. The English word ‘sabbath’ and the Hebrew ‘shabat’ both also originate from ‘sabatu’ Four of the festivals (the solstices and equinoxes) celebrate the power of the sun and the moon at the time. The other four festivals, are Celtic in origin, and are linked more with the annual cycle of planting and harvesting of crops. Traditionally the festivals also reflect the lifecycle of the gods and goddesses throughout the year.
Samhain (pronounced sow-in) is Gaelic for ‘the summers end’ and is known as the Celtic New Year; it marks the start of the winter, and the beginning of shorter days and longer evenings. It is a time for introspection, reflecting on the past year, looking forward to the future, and possible spiritual growth.
While Samhain has been celebrated for centuries and has its origin in Pagan Celtic traditions, later on it was adopted by Christianity. The modern day Halloween comes from the Christian festival called All Hallows eve. This and the following two days; All Saints and All Souls day (1st and 2nd of November) were for remembering and honouring loved ones who had passed away. This custom still continues today, in Countries such as France Spain and Mexico. In France All Saints day is a public holiday, and it is traditional for people to dress up in finest clothes and visit family graves and decorate them with flowers.
Samhain traditionally celebrated on October 31st is the night when the veil between the spirit world and our world is at its thinnest, and the souls of our ancestors can return to our world. It is a time to celebrate wisdom old and new, when the past and future join together for one night, and the dead could return to warm themselves by the fires of the living. In earlier times families would decorate altars to honour their ancestors, with mementos of those who had passed away and harvest foods such as; pumpkins, apples, and breads. They would also open their windows and place garlic on the window sills to allow the good family dead to enter. It was also believed at this time that some of the living (especially poets) were able to enter the otherworld through doorways at ancient burial mounds or ‘sidhe’ such as; at the Hill of Tara in Ireland.
Also known as the Feast of the dead; death is a central theme of this festival. This does not mean however that it is a morbid event, as the ancient Celts believed death is not a thing to be feared. They valued old age for the wisdom it brings, and saw death as an accepted part of the cycle of life. As with the other Celtic festivals, Samhain was a time for communities to get together and celebrate, which they did by lighting sacred bonfires, sacrificing animals, and bringing harvest food to share in a communal dinner. They would also dress up in animal heads and skins.
Many of the Samhain traditions still continue today such as: the hollowing out of a pumpkin and putting a lighted candle inside. This was traditionally known as a Jack o Lantern: a name which derived from a legendary character called Jack, who upon escaping hell was forced to walk in limbo carrying a hot coal for all eternity. While the veil between the worlds were so thin, the other world could also release fairies and mischievous spirits, and the Jack o Lantern was thought to keep evil spirits away and protect people from harm. Placing the lighted pumpkin on a window sill, facing the road, for 3 days until dusk on the 3rd of November was also believed to welcome home family ancestors. Another theory is that pumpkin lanterns originate from the ancient Celts placing the skulls of their ancestors outside their doors at Samhain.
The practice of trick or treat has also evolved from a time where children used to visit houses, to ask for soul breads to decorate their family altars (bread foods were thought to a favourite of the spirits). Nowadays children visit houses collecting sweets for themselves to eat, which are certainly not intended to honour the dead. Another belief is that at Samhain, fairies would take advantage of the thin veil, and dress up as beggars, visiting houses asking for handouts. If they received food people would be rewarded, but if they slammed the doors in the fairies faces they would find out how mischievous fairies could be.
In the agricultural wheel of the year Samhain marks the final harvest, when animals were slaughtered, food was stored away for the long months ahead, and activity moved from outdoors to indoors by the warmth of the fire. Fire played an important part in the rituals that took place at Samhain. Cattle would be brought down from the hills and passed between two fires to purify and cleanse them, as well as to protect them from any evil spirits that may be lurking while the veil between the worlds was so thin. It was believed to be bad luck to take all of the harvest, as something should always be left to keep the connection between the land and its produce throughout the long winter. Protection from evil was very important to the ancient Celts, especially at Samhain and Beltane (the two turning points of the year) when it was thought that the spirit world was very close at hand, and these were days of much evil activity.
Samhain was believed to be the night when the God of the old year dies and returns to the underworld. It is reported that the goddess enters to be reunited with the god (for three days only), returning on the third day of the festival to prepare for his rebirth at the Winter Solstice.
Throughout the wheel of the year the Celtic triple goddess goes through 3 stages (virgin, mother and crone). The Goddess is now in the crone aspect. She is not to be feared as she is the same goddess who gave us life in the summer. She has moved through being a maiden/virgin ready for a sexual union with the god at Beltane (May 1st), and the earth mother, recognised by the making of corn dollies at Lughnassadh (August 1st). She is the now the older woman wise but stern, and has much knowledge she can share with us. She comes in the form of Cerridwen, Hecate, Arianrhod and Persephone among others and is often symbolised by the wise old owl who is not blinded by darkness and travels by night.
Many of the traditions of Samhain have been incorporated into Halloween today such as; placing pumpkin lanterns in windows, and dressing up and getting together with friends and family to celebrate. However it could be argued that the origins of Samhain have become a little lost. As we dress up as witches, vampires, and scary monsters it could be said our celebrations today illustrate our fascination with the macabre, evil and death. Samhain is however a celebration of the cycle of life. It celebrates the renewal and rebirth not only of the earth, but also of the gods and goddesses and of ourselves. Samhain reminds us death is not to be feared, and that it is from death that life emerges. As the veil between the spirit world and ours is its thinnest, Samhain is an opportunity to honour, remember and reconnect with loved ones who have passed away. It is celebration of ancient wisdom, a time to reflect on the past, and look forward into the future.
Wednesday, October 06, 2010
Different perceptions of perfection Building a better body?
When I first wrote this article I had signed up for a sponsored swim, in which I was going to swim the length of the channel, 22 miles, over a twelve week period. As I had to up the amount I swam, one of my biggest worries was that my body shape would change, and that I could end up with a somewhat triangular swimmer’s physique. This got me to wondering why some people actually strive to completely change their body shape. (I have now signed up for the same sponsored swim as part of a team and I need to swim half the length of the channel, 11 miles, over a twelve week period) This article explores the history of body building, what attracts people to the pastime, and the lengths they will go to, to build a better body.
In today’s society we are constantly bombarded by unrealistic body images from on the catwalk, to in magazines, and on the television. The pressure to alter transform and modify our bodies to meet cultural ideals affects many people who can develop an obsession with body image. These messages suggest it’s not ok to leave our bodies in its natural state, and we should do what we can to try and change our bodies and our appearance. The body building industry is no different, and the pastime is promoted by suggesting you can: ‘build a better body’ and ‘build a strong muscular and impressive physique’.
Brief history of Body Building
There are reports that suggest body building goes back as far as 11th century India, where lifting heavy stones called ‘Nals’ was a popular pastime. In ancient Greece and Egypt they also lifted stones in order to gain strength and power, and transform the body. However whether this was done to keep fit or to look good is unsure. Prior to the 19th century strongmen contests were about showing strength and not muscles, however by the end of the century, the emphasis was beginning to change from athletic body building to aesthetic body building.
Known as the ‘father of body building’ Eugen Sandow from Prussia advocated obtaining the ‘perfect physique’, which he believed was close to the proportions of the classical Greek and Roman statues. He was one of the first people to display his muscles in front of an audience, and along with his manager; Florenz Ziegfield was the subject of the Oscar winning 1936 film ‘The Great Ziegfield’ which told the story of modern day body building. Sandow developed the first body building machinery using dumbbells, spring pulleys & tension bands, and set up business selling his weight training equipment.
Sandow also helped organise one of the first body building contests which took place at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1901. In 1904 the first contest in America took place at Madison Square New York, and the winner Al Treloar was said to be ‘the most perfectly developed man in the world’. The popularity of body building carried on with regular contests such as Mr Olympia.
The Amateur Athletic Union established Mr America in 1939, and although the contest was meant to be about demonstrating athletic skills, it was suggested that the participants had more chance of winning, if they had specifically trained to improve their physique and this further increased the popularity of body building. With this rise in popularity the quality of the contestant’s physique’s also needed to improve, and so the use of chemical tanning to enhance the definition of muscles became a popular practise.
The International Federation of Body builders (IFBB) was established in 1946 and the popularity of body building continued. In the 1970’s the film industry started recruiting actors who were particularly muscular, and celebrities such as Arnold Schwarzenegger promoted body building further. The growth of the body building industry with more and more emphasis on aesthetics, demanded a more extreme approach to physical development, and so the use of anabolic steroids became widespread. As the expectations of body builders have increased this trend has continued, and it has been reported that many body builders take different types of steroids at the same time (known as stacking), and the use of insulin and growth hormones has also become commonplace.
So why do people body build?
The main method of building muscles is of course weight lifting, and as with any exercise there are health benefits. Weight lifting can help lower cholesterol, raise your metabolic rate, improve your posture, and release feel good endorphins which help combat depression. Building a little extra muscle can actually reduce the likelihood of injury, as strong muscles, tendons, and ligaments can withhold more stress. Weightlifting can also help offset some of the degeneration associated with aging such as; building up muscle mass which we can lose as we grow older. Weight bearing activity can also increase bone density and can help prevent osteoporosis (brittle bones).
Unlike weight lifting, which may be taken up by people wanting to become fitter and healthier, body building is completely concerned with body image. The thrill and the prestige of competing may influence many people to take up the pastime. However many people who take up body building do so because they don’t like their body’s appearance, and underlying a negative body image is often insecurity and low self esteem. Body building offers a chance to transform their bodies, and comments on progress can make them more determined to carry on. Searching through body building websites, gaining confidence, and getting more attention from the opposite sex were often cited as being reasons why people got into bodybuilding. Similar to people trying to lose weight reading diet magazines, body builders are constantly subjected to images of ‘strong muscular and impressive physiques’, which is quite likely to increase the pressure on them to transform their bodies.
Body builders are often perfectionists, and while they may feel they can not control areas of their life such as work and personal relationships, their body shape is something they can control. They can control how hard they train and what they eat, and often feel a sense of accomplishment by being able to achieve and maintain the muscular body. However it could be argued instead of a perceived mastery of their body shape, they actually become slaves to the discipline, and the regulation of these bodies.
The addictive nature of Body building
It is suggested that body builders are particularly vulnerable to becoming addicted to training. They may be spurred on at first by people making positive comments about their physiques; however the upkeep of their muscular bodies requires a lot of work. Many body builders report that their obsession with building muscles can affect their lives completely, from not spending time with their families, to missing work, through to completely planning and controlling what they eat. An obsession with body building can often lead to overtraining. Training too frequently and not allowing adequate recovery from intensive exercise, can wear your body down and cause long term physical problems such as painful joints in later life. So inevitably spending too long pumping iron, as opposed to helping someone become fitter and healthier, can actually lead to an increased risk of injuries.
Worrying obsessively about their appearance and undertaking excessive exercise could also be a sign that someone is suffering from ‘muscle dsymorphia’, which is an under-recognised type of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). People with muscle dsymorphia or ‘bigorexia’ as it’s become unofficially known, suffer from a form of ‘reverse anorexia’ where they believe their muscles are smaller than they actually are and train harder to increase their size. Similarly women who may have BDD, can develop an obsession with toning up any areas of their bodies that they feel look fat or flabby, even if they are actually lean and muscular. Whatever form of body dysmorphic disorder a person may suffer from they are quite likely to do whatever they can to achieve their ‘perfect body’, and are generally not concerned about any risks involved, such as the risks of taking steroids or human growth hormone.
When obsession goes too far. Drug use in body building
Anabolic steroids are a group of compounds which produce effects similar to that of the male sex hormone testosterone (anabolic means ‘building body tissue’). They help the body convert protein to muscle, and body builders claim they also enable them to train harder and can help them recover from strenuous exercise faster. Although they are only available on prescription steroid tablets or liquid (suitable for injecting) are very easily available to buy. Steroid use has escalated, and it’s suggested that boys as young as 12 are taking them to build muscles and get girls. It is estimated around one in ten gym users take steroids, and it is reported that the majority of people using needle exchange schemes are now sports men and women. There is also a rise of women taking a range of steroids which are promoted as effective fat burners, turning fat into lean tissue.
There are many ways that people take steroids: ‘Cycling’ involves stopping and starting taking multiple doses of steroids over a specific period of time. ‘Stacking’ as mentioned above involves taking two or more different types of steroids, as they believe they interact with each other to produce an effect greater than taking them individually. ‘Pyramiding’ is when the dosage and frequency of taking steroids are increased to reach a peak and then slowly reduced again, often followed by a drug free period. The idea behind pyramiding is that increasing the amount slowly allows the body to adjust to high doses, and drug free periods allow for recuperation.
There are many side effects of taking anabolic steroids many of which are not reversible. They can affect a person’s mood, make them more irritable, aggressive and it has been reported that steroid users can also become quite paranoid, and suffer from extreme jealousy. Physical side effects can include high blood pressure, a reduction in good cholesterol, fluid retention and oedema. It is also suggested steroid use increases the risks of developing cancer, heart and liver disease, and atherosclerosis. Further risks for men include; erectile dysfunction even though their sex drive may be increased, a reduced sperm count, baldness and the shrinking of their testicles.
The trend in adolescents taking steroids is very worrying, as they are at risk of suffering irreversible side effects such as accelerated puberty changes and stunted growth. The effect on women of taking a substance closely related to testosterone (a male hormone) can include them experiencing a deepened voice, excessive body and facial hair, acne, disruption of the menstrual cycle, permanent enlargement of the clitoris, and infertility.
Stimulants cover a range of substances from caffeine in coffee to ephedrine and amphetamines, and they typically used to increase energy, alertness and boost athletic performance. They can also reduce fatigue and suppress appetite. As stimulants provide short lived energy the body inevitably pays for this later, and the short term effects of stimulant use can be irritability, anxiety, and paranoia. Long term use or higher doses can have more worrying effects on the body including; convulsions, brain haemorrhages, hallucinations and heart problems such as palpitations, and rhythm abnormalities. There is also a real danger of death from overdosing.
Synthetic Human Growth Hormone (HGH) was created to mimic the effects of naturally occurring hormones produced by the pituitary glands, which stimulates growth and cell formation. It is used for treating a range of rare conditions, such as dwarfism in children or for people with an HIV/AIDS-related wasting disease. However it has also become a popular drug of choice for body builders. These hormones naturally produced by the body are responsible for normal growth in children and teenagers and can regulate the metabolic process, as people get older the levels of these hormones decrease and this can result in an increase of fat storage. The appeal of HGH is therefore quite understandable, as the use of HGH intends to stop the changes that are associated with aging. It is reported by body builders that injections of the HGH can increase lean muscle, and increase strength. It is also used to help speed up recovery from injuries. There is however no evidence that this is true. Side effects from taking HGH include swelling in the arms and legs, arthritic type symptoms, muscle pain, hardening of arteries and high blood pressure.
Insulin which is normally given to diabetics to help control blood sugar levels, is being injected by body builders as it can boost their muscle mass. Unlike steroids it is virtually undetectable so it is a popular choice for body builders who compete. Using insulin if you are not diabetic could lead to a dangerous drop in blood sugar levels which could lead to coma or even death. Using insulin in the long term can cause irreversible damage. As the body’s natural mechanism to produce insulin is compromised it is likely to stop working so that the user may actually end up becoming diabetic themselves.
Drug taking is definitely very much part of the body building culture. What is worrying is that while researching the drugs commonly used by body builders for this article (of which the ones mentioned above are only a few), is that the searches consistently came up with body building websites, and sites selling supplements for sport. Upon visiting body building sites, visitors are bombarded with advertisements selling various performance enhancing products. The extent of some body builder’s willingness to try drugs in order to achieve the ‘perfect’ physique, without thinking too much about the consequences, is something Lee Sweeney a geneticist from the University of Pennsylvania found out. He had to stop answering the phone to sports men and women begging him to be his first human guinea pig, after they read about his experiments creating ‘Schwarzenegger mice’. Sweeney had been trying to find a remedy for people with muscle wasting diseases, and managed to isolate a gene responsible for manufacturing a type of protein which he administered to the mice. The results were dramatic as the mice developed biceps and thighs twice as strong as normal mice.
Natural body building
The good news is there are people who are taking a stand and choosing not to take drugs to help them workout and build muscles. Organisations such as the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation, and the Association of Natural Body Building, promote body building without the use of drugs. The natural movement may be becoming more popular as people are increasingly finding the freaky body shapes that body builders who use drugs can develop, distasteful. Many body builders are also deciding they don’t want to put their health at risk by taking drugs. However natural body building may not always be an easy option for body builders, especially if they want to compete, as they are unlikely to be able to compete with body builders using drugs who are bigger and more muscular. The temptation to take drugs will always be there, as they find it takes a lot more hard work and patience to reach their goals, and that they are unlikely to achieve the same results as body builders who do use drugs. Whether body builders take drugs or not the drive for physical perfection is still there, and while natural body building is healthier, it could be argued that to achieve the physiques they want without drugs, body builders have to train much harder, and take more control of what they eat.
In conclusion
What is very clear is that body building by its very nature signifies difference; body builders want people to notice their muscular physiques, and in order to do this they need to be somewhat obsessive. Low self esteem and insecurities are often reasons people become immersed in the body building culture, as they can build up their muscles and receive positive comments on how they are looking. The body building culture can be a very destructive pastime and definitely has its ‘dark side’ including: drug taking, body image issues such as body dysmorphia, eating disorders, and obsessive exercising. Drug taking and obsessive exercising can be, and is, a factor in many other sporting activities; however anyone who wants to achieve competitive success in body building has little choice but to go to extremes. I think I may just stick to my swimming.
In today’s society we are constantly bombarded by unrealistic body images from on the catwalk, to in magazines, and on the television. The pressure to alter transform and modify our bodies to meet cultural ideals affects many people who can develop an obsession with body image. These messages suggest it’s not ok to leave our bodies in its natural state, and we should do what we can to try and change our bodies and our appearance. The body building industry is no different, and the pastime is promoted by suggesting you can: ‘build a better body’ and ‘build a strong muscular and impressive physique’.
Brief history of Body Building
There are reports that suggest body building goes back as far as 11th century India, where lifting heavy stones called ‘Nals’ was a popular pastime. In ancient Greece and Egypt they also lifted stones in order to gain strength and power, and transform the body. However whether this was done to keep fit or to look good is unsure. Prior to the 19th century strongmen contests were about showing strength and not muscles, however by the end of the century, the emphasis was beginning to change from athletic body building to aesthetic body building.
Known as the ‘father of body building’ Eugen Sandow from Prussia advocated obtaining the ‘perfect physique’, which he believed was close to the proportions of the classical Greek and Roman statues. He was one of the first people to display his muscles in front of an audience, and along with his manager; Florenz Ziegfield was the subject of the Oscar winning 1936 film ‘The Great Ziegfield’ which told the story of modern day body building. Sandow developed the first body building machinery using dumbbells, spring pulleys & tension bands, and set up business selling his weight training equipment.
Sandow also helped organise one of the first body building contests which took place at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1901. In 1904 the first contest in America took place at Madison Square New York, and the winner Al Treloar was said to be ‘the most perfectly developed man in the world’. The popularity of body building carried on with regular contests such as Mr Olympia.
The Amateur Athletic Union established Mr America in 1939, and although the contest was meant to be about demonstrating athletic skills, it was suggested that the participants had more chance of winning, if they had specifically trained to improve their physique and this further increased the popularity of body building. With this rise in popularity the quality of the contestant’s physique’s also needed to improve, and so the use of chemical tanning to enhance the definition of muscles became a popular practise.
The International Federation of Body builders (IFBB) was established in 1946 and the popularity of body building continued. In the 1970’s the film industry started recruiting actors who were particularly muscular, and celebrities such as Arnold Schwarzenegger promoted body building further. The growth of the body building industry with more and more emphasis on aesthetics, demanded a more extreme approach to physical development, and so the use of anabolic steroids became widespread. As the expectations of body builders have increased this trend has continued, and it has been reported that many body builders take different types of steroids at the same time (known as stacking), and the use of insulin and growth hormones has also become commonplace.
So why do people body build?
The main method of building muscles is of course weight lifting, and as with any exercise there are health benefits. Weight lifting can help lower cholesterol, raise your metabolic rate, improve your posture, and release feel good endorphins which help combat depression. Building a little extra muscle can actually reduce the likelihood of injury, as strong muscles, tendons, and ligaments can withhold more stress. Weightlifting can also help offset some of the degeneration associated with aging such as; building up muscle mass which we can lose as we grow older. Weight bearing activity can also increase bone density and can help prevent osteoporosis (brittle bones).
Unlike weight lifting, which may be taken up by people wanting to become fitter and healthier, body building is completely concerned with body image. The thrill and the prestige of competing may influence many people to take up the pastime. However many people who take up body building do so because they don’t like their body’s appearance, and underlying a negative body image is often insecurity and low self esteem. Body building offers a chance to transform their bodies, and comments on progress can make them more determined to carry on. Searching through body building websites, gaining confidence, and getting more attention from the opposite sex were often cited as being reasons why people got into bodybuilding. Similar to people trying to lose weight reading diet magazines, body builders are constantly subjected to images of ‘strong muscular and impressive physiques’, which is quite likely to increase the pressure on them to transform their bodies.
Body builders are often perfectionists, and while they may feel they can not control areas of their life such as work and personal relationships, their body shape is something they can control. They can control how hard they train and what they eat, and often feel a sense of accomplishment by being able to achieve and maintain the muscular body. However it could be argued instead of a perceived mastery of their body shape, they actually become slaves to the discipline, and the regulation of these bodies.
The addictive nature of Body building
It is suggested that body builders are particularly vulnerable to becoming addicted to training. They may be spurred on at first by people making positive comments about their physiques; however the upkeep of their muscular bodies requires a lot of work. Many body builders report that their obsession with building muscles can affect their lives completely, from not spending time with their families, to missing work, through to completely planning and controlling what they eat. An obsession with body building can often lead to overtraining. Training too frequently and not allowing adequate recovery from intensive exercise, can wear your body down and cause long term physical problems such as painful joints in later life. So inevitably spending too long pumping iron, as opposed to helping someone become fitter and healthier, can actually lead to an increased risk of injuries.
Worrying obsessively about their appearance and undertaking excessive exercise could also be a sign that someone is suffering from ‘muscle dsymorphia’, which is an under-recognised type of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). People with muscle dsymorphia or ‘bigorexia’ as it’s become unofficially known, suffer from a form of ‘reverse anorexia’ where they believe their muscles are smaller than they actually are and train harder to increase their size. Similarly women who may have BDD, can develop an obsession with toning up any areas of their bodies that they feel look fat or flabby, even if they are actually lean and muscular. Whatever form of body dysmorphic disorder a person may suffer from they are quite likely to do whatever they can to achieve their ‘perfect body’, and are generally not concerned about any risks involved, such as the risks of taking steroids or human growth hormone.
When obsession goes too far. Drug use in body building
Anabolic steroids are a group of compounds which produce effects similar to that of the male sex hormone testosterone (anabolic means ‘building body tissue’). They help the body convert protein to muscle, and body builders claim they also enable them to train harder and can help them recover from strenuous exercise faster. Although they are only available on prescription steroid tablets or liquid (suitable for injecting) are very easily available to buy. Steroid use has escalated, and it’s suggested that boys as young as 12 are taking them to build muscles and get girls. It is estimated around one in ten gym users take steroids, and it is reported that the majority of people using needle exchange schemes are now sports men and women. There is also a rise of women taking a range of steroids which are promoted as effective fat burners, turning fat into lean tissue.
There are many ways that people take steroids: ‘Cycling’ involves stopping and starting taking multiple doses of steroids over a specific period of time. ‘Stacking’ as mentioned above involves taking two or more different types of steroids, as they believe they interact with each other to produce an effect greater than taking them individually. ‘Pyramiding’ is when the dosage and frequency of taking steroids are increased to reach a peak and then slowly reduced again, often followed by a drug free period. The idea behind pyramiding is that increasing the amount slowly allows the body to adjust to high doses, and drug free periods allow for recuperation.
There are many side effects of taking anabolic steroids many of which are not reversible. They can affect a person’s mood, make them more irritable, aggressive and it has been reported that steroid users can also become quite paranoid, and suffer from extreme jealousy. Physical side effects can include high blood pressure, a reduction in good cholesterol, fluid retention and oedema. It is also suggested steroid use increases the risks of developing cancer, heart and liver disease, and atherosclerosis. Further risks for men include; erectile dysfunction even though their sex drive may be increased, a reduced sperm count, baldness and the shrinking of their testicles.
The trend in adolescents taking steroids is very worrying, as they are at risk of suffering irreversible side effects such as accelerated puberty changes and stunted growth. The effect on women of taking a substance closely related to testosterone (a male hormone) can include them experiencing a deepened voice, excessive body and facial hair, acne, disruption of the menstrual cycle, permanent enlargement of the clitoris, and infertility.
Stimulants cover a range of substances from caffeine in coffee to ephedrine and amphetamines, and they typically used to increase energy, alertness and boost athletic performance. They can also reduce fatigue and suppress appetite. As stimulants provide short lived energy the body inevitably pays for this later, and the short term effects of stimulant use can be irritability, anxiety, and paranoia. Long term use or higher doses can have more worrying effects on the body including; convulsions, brain haemorrhages, hallucinations and heart problems such as palpitations, and rhythm abnormalities. There is also a real danger of death from overdosing.
Synthetic Human Growth Hormone (HGH) was created to mimic the effects of naturally occurring hormones produced by the pituitary glands, which stimulates growth and cell formation. It is used for treating a range of rare conditions, such as dwarfism in children or for people with an HIV/AIDS-related wasting disease. However it has also become a popular drug of choice for body builders. These hormones naturally produced by the body are responsible for normal growth in children and teenagers and can regulate the metabolic process, as people get older the levels of these hormones decrease and this can result in an increase of fat storage. The appeal of HGH is therefore quite understandable, as the use of HGH intends to stop the changes that are associated with aging. It is reported by body builders that injections of the HGH can increase lean muscle, and increase strength. It is also used to help speed up recovery from injuries. There is however no evidence that this is true. Side effects from taking HGH include swelling in the arms and legs, arthritic type symptoms, muscle pain, hardening of arteries and high blood pressure.
Insulin which is normally given to diabetics to help control blood sugar levels, is being injected by body builders as it can boost their muscle mass. Unlike steroids it is virtually undetectable so it is a popular choice for body builders who compete. Using insulin if you are not diabetic could lead to a dangerous drop in blood sugar levels which could lead to coma or even death. Using insulin in the long term can cause irreversible damage. As the body’s natural mechanism to produce insulin is compromised it is likely to stop working so that the user may actually end up becoming diabetic themselves.
Drug taking is definitely very much part of the body building culture. What is worrying is that while researching the drugs commonly used by body builders for this article (of which the ones mentioned above are only a few), is that the searches consistently came up with body building websites, and sites selling supplements for sport. Upon visiting body building sites, visitors are bombarded with advertisements selling various performance enhancing products. The extent of some body builder’s willingness to try drugs in order to achieve the ‘perfect’ physique, without thinking too much about the consequences, is something Lee Sweeney a geneticist from the University of Pennsylvania found out. He had to stop answering the phone to sports men and women begging him to be his first human guinea pig, after they read about his experiments creating ‘Schwarzenegger mice’. Sweeney had been trying to find a remedy for people with muscle wasting diseases, and managed to isolate a gene responsible for manufacturing a type of protein which he administered to the mice. The results were dramatic as the mice developed biceps and thighs twice as strong as normal mice.
Natural body building
The good news is there are people who are taking a stand and choosing not to take drugs to help them workout and build muscles. Organisations such as the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation, and the Association of Natural Body Building, promote body building without the use of drugs. The natural movement may be becoming more popular as people are increasingly finding the freaky body shapes that body builders who use drugs can develop, distasteful. Many body builders are also deciding they don’t want to put their health at risk by taking drugs. However natural body building may not always be an easy option for body builders, especially if they want to compete, as they are unlikely to be able to compete with body builders using drugs who are bigger and more muscular. The temptation to take drugs will always be there, as they find it takes a lot more hard work and patience to reach their goals, and that they are unlikely to achieve the same results as body builders who do use drugs. Whether body builders take drugs or not the drive for physical perfection is still there, and while natural body building is healthier, it could be argued that to achieve the physiques they want without drugs, body builders have to train much harder, and take more control of what they eat.
In conclusion
What is very clear is that body building by its very nature signifies difference; body builders want people to notice their muscular physiques, and in order to do this they need to be somewhat obsessive. Low self esteem and insecurities are often reasons people become immersed in the body building culture, as they can build up their muscles and receive positive comments on how they are looking. The body building culture can be a very destructive pastime and definitely has its ‘dark side’ including: drug taking, body image issues such as body dysmorphia, eating disorders, and obsessive exercising. Drug taking and obsessive exercising can be, and is, a factor in many other sporting activities; however anyone who wants to achieve competitive success in body building has little choice but to go to extremes. I think I may just stick to my swimming.
Wednesday, September 01, 2010
Extreme Bodies The history of tattooing
Throughout history people have painted, pierced, tattooed, adorned and even reshaped their bodies. ‘Extreme Bodies’ is a series of articles (posted once a month) exploring the history of body modification. As the first two articles in the series discussed the traditional practice of female genital surgery and then foot binding in China, this month I thought it was probably time for a bit of light relief, with an exploration of the history of tattooing.
The word tattoo comes from Tahitian word ‘tatu’ meaning to mark something. People have been marking their bodies with permanent designs for thousands of years, and it is quite remarkable how there doesn’t seem to be a corner of the earth that tattooing hasn’t reached. From marks of pride, to marks of shame, signs of religious belief, or membership of a group, declarations of love, or simply for adornment, the purposes and styles of tattoos have varied through history and from culture to culture. This article takes a brief look at some of the reasons put forward as to why people have taken to marking their bodies, followed by exploration of the distinctive tattoos of the Maori people.
Tattooing to illustrate social status
In the past, one of the reported similarities of tattoos from different cultures was that tattoos illustrated a person’s status, such as their position within a tribe. In Borneo, for example, it was traditional for women to be the tattooists, and they tattooed symbols of their skills and profession on their arms, which in turn would illustrate their status and marriageability. Similarly, they tattooed men with designs indicating their station in life and the tribe they belonged to. In some cultures tattooing was just reserved for the dominant figures in the community, and was supposed to signify their importance and power.
In other areas of the world tattoos seemed to have completely the opposite meaning, and demonstrated a lower social standing in society. Ancient Greeks and Romans commonly used tattooing as a punishment. Branding marks were tattooed on slaves, and convicts and gladiators would be tattooed on the face. It is also reported that in sixth century Japan, tattooing was used to identify criminals, and the symbols used would identify where they carried out their crimes. Tattooing was portrayed as one of the most severe forms of punishment.
Tattoos signifying membership of groups
Throughout history and across the diverse cultures that practised tattooing, designs identifying the bearer to a certain tribe are commonplace. Celtic tribes, Native Americans, Maori tribes, and tribes from Borneo, and the Polynesian Islands all had their own designs for tattoos. Tribal tattoos were of great importance to their members, who could read each others tattoos to reveal their origin, and the hierarchy of the person within the group.
Tattoos identifying people to a group has remained popular in modern culture. One example is gang tattoos, where members are tattooed with their gang’s symbol. The purpose of these tattoos would be to show their commitment to their gang, as well as the tattoos revealing the beliefs of the gang, such as if they are a racist group. They may also have tattoos done which could identify whether the bearer has been in jail or killed anyone.
Other examples of tattoos signifying membership of a group include biker tattoos, and religious tattoos which could be considered to identify people to a certain religious group.
Tattooing for health
In many cultures it was believed tattooing could help ward off illness. One common practice would be to tattoo a symbol of a god onto someone who was ill, to help them fight the illness. In ancient Egypt it is reported that women were tattooed on the leg to protect them from the dangers of childbirth. In 1991 a frozen body of Bronze Age man was discovered, which made the headlines all over the world. ‘Otzi the ice man’ (as he was named) had 57 tattooed marks on him including; a cross of his inside left knee, and straight lines positioned above his kidneys. Theorists have suggested these marks may have been tattooed for health reasons to possibly help treat arthritis.
Tattoos for protection and spiritual well-being
A recurring belief in many cultures was that certain tattoos could help with a safe passage to the after life. From the tribes in Borneo to the Sioux in North Dakota, tattoos have been seen as a passport to the world beyond, and in many cultures this was believed to have involved crossing a river to the land of the dead. Having the right tattoo was considered very important, as without it a person would not be recognised, and therefore be able to pass to the land of the spirits.
In other cultures, animals images and totems were tattooed to help people identify with the animal spirit, and to evoke their power to help with hunting and to ensure protection. In Polynesian culture it was believed having tattoos illustrated and increased the ‘mana’ (spiritual power) of the adorned, and enabled them to communicate more closely with the gods.
Even within Christianity, despite the marking of the body being prohibited in the Old Testament (Leviticus 19.28), crusaders going into battle would tattoo small crosses on their hands to ensure they got a Christian burial. Tattoos have long since been used as a symbol by people to express their identity and faith, and religious tattoos such as crosses, angels and doves are popular tattoos today.
Maori Tattoos
According to Maori legend, the art of tattooing started with a young man ‘Mataora’ who fell in love with a princess from the underworld called ‘Niwareka’. One day Mataora beat Niwareka and she fled to her father’s realm ‘Uetonga’. Wracked with guilt Mataora went to the underworld to find his love, and eventually managed to get to Uetonga with his face all muddy and dirty from his journey. Niwareka forgave him and before they returned to the human world, her father taught him the art of ‘Ta Moko’ (the process of tattooing).
Probably the most distinctive tattoos in the world are Maori tattoos. The tattoos are known as ‘moko’ and are an important part of Maori culture. Apart from slaves and commoners most Maori men were tattooed on the face, often with big spiral designs and curved shapes. Maori moko were unique as the process also involved making incisions into the skin, so that scars are formed. The tattoos were done using a bone chisel with a serrated or extremely sharp edge, which was then struck with a mallet. After grooves had been made in the skin, the chisel would be dipped in a sooty pigment such as a mixture of vegetables and dead caterpillars or burnt wood, and colouring would commence. Tattooing for men commenced at puberty and marked a young mans rite of passage. As a man went through life, any important milestones would be interpreted into a design and tattooed onto their bodies.
Ta Moko (the process of tattooing) was long and painful, and as battles occurred frequently there often wasn’t much time for healing. There were also strict rules to follow while the moko was healing, including absolutely no sexual intimacy, as well as not being able to eat any solid food. This meant that food needed to be liquidised and fed to them through a wooden funnel. Sometimes leaves from the native ‘Karuka’ tree were placed on the wounds to aid healing, and it was also believed that flute music and chanting poems would help alleviate the pain.
Facial moko were a great source of pride for men which they believed made them more attractive to women and fierce in battles. For women tattoos were not as elaborate, and having their lips outlined and coloured in with solid blue was considered very beautiful. For men their moko served as a sign of identity. Different areas of the face related to different aspects of their identity. For example; moko on the central forehead referred to their rank, moko on their cheek referred to what they did for work, and moko on each side of the face indicated their ancestry, one side from their mother’s side and the other from their father’s side.
It is suggested that the art of tattooing along with other Maori traditions, started to die out after the coming of European settlers
Since the 1990’s Maori traditions seem to be having a revival, and also spreading to the West, which has caused a lot of controversy. The bold patterns and symbols used in moko are very appealing to people wanting tattoos. However the messages contained within the moko are of great importance to the Maori, as they tell of the wearer’s value, genealogy and social standing. Copying these designs would be considered to be stealing a part of someone’s identity and therefore insulting to the Maori people. For anyone interested in having a Maori inspired tattoo it would be a good idea to search out a tattooist who is knowledgeable about these issues, and can design a tattoo without the symbolic ties.
More recent history
Whereas in the past tattoos were often associated with the higher classes within society, by the 1900’s they was losing their popularity and it could be said the popularity of tattooing crossed the classes, when tattooing became popular among sailors. It almost became a ritual for sailors to mark their visits to ports by getting drunk, laid and tattooed. This most probably contributed to the negative stigmatisation of people with tattoos that occurred from the 1940’s onwards. In the 1960’s rock stars such as Janis Joplin started getting tattoos, and these were seen as a political statement of their non conformity and rebellious streak. The perception of tattooing has certainly changed a lot over the years and is not now confined to people from certain classes or cultures, or to illustrate a person’s non conformity. Tattoos also generally don’t have the deep meanings, importance and symbolism they may have had in the past. Today an increasing number of people from all walks of life, from white collar professionals to middle aged mums, are choosing to get tattoos to express their individuality and ultimately decorate their bodies.
The word tattoo comes from Tahitian word ‘tatu’ meaning to mark something. People have been marking their bodies with permanent designs for thousands of years, and it is quite remarkable how there doesn’t seem to be a corner of the earth that tattooing hasn’t reached. From marks of pride, to marks of shame, signs of religious belief, or membership of a group, declarations of love, or simply for adornment, the purposes and styles of tattoos have varied through history and from culture to culture. This article takes a brief look at some of the reasons put forward as to why people have taken to marking their bodies, followed by exploration of the distinctive tattoos of the Maori people.
Tattooing to illustrate social status
In the past, one of the reported similarities of tattoos from different cultures was that tattoos illustrated a person’s status, such as their position within a tribe. In Borneo, for example, it was traditional for women to be the tattooists, and they tattooed symbols of their skills and profession on their arms, which in turn would illustrate their status and marriageability. Similarly, they tattooed men with designs indicating their station in life and the tribe they belonged to. In some cultures tattooing was just reserved for the dominant figures in the community, and was supposed to signify their importance and power.
In other areas of the world tattoos seemed to have completely the opposite meaning, and demonstrated a lower social standing in society. Ancient Greeks and Romans commonly used tattooing as a punishment. Branding marks were tattooed on slaves, and convicts and gladiators would be tattooed on the face. It is also reported that in sixth century Japan, tattooing was used to identify criminals, and the symbols used would identify where they carried out their crimes. Tattooing was portrayed as one of the most severe forms of punishment.
Tattoos signifying membership of groups
Throughout history and across the diverse cultures that practised tattooing, designs identifying the bearer to a certain tribe are commonplace. Celtic tribes, Native Americans, Maori tribes, and tribes from Borneo, and the Polynesian Islands all had their own designs for tattoos. Tribal tattoos were of great importance to their members, who could read each others tattoos to reveal their origin, and the hierarchy of the person within the group.
Tattoos identifying people to a group has remained popular in modern culture. One example is gang tattoos, where members are tattooed with their gang’s symbol. The purpose of these tattoos would be to show their commitment to their gang, as well as the tattoos revealing the beliefs of the gang, such as if they are a racist group. They may also have tattoos done which could identify whether the bearer has been in jail or killed anyone.
Other examples of tattoos signifying membership of a group include biker tattoos, and religious tattoos which could be considered to identify people to a certain religious group.
Tattooing for health
In many cultures it was believed tattooing could help ward off illness. One common practice would be to tattoo a symbol of a god onto someone who was ill, to help them fight the illness. In ancient Egypt it is reported that women were tattooed on the leg to protect them from the dangers of childbirth. In 1991 a frozen body of Bronze Age man was discovered, which made the headlines all over the world. ‘Otzi the ice man’ (as he was named) had 57 tattooed marks on him including; a cross of his inside left knee, and straight lines positioned above his kidneys. Theorists have suggested these marks may have been tattooed for health reasons to possibly help treat arthritis.
Tattoos for protection and spiritual well-being
A recurring belief in many cultures was that certain tattoos could help with a safe passage to the after life. From the tribes in Borneo to the Sioux in North Dakota, tattoos have been seen as a passport to the world beyond, and in many cultures this was believed to have involved crossing a river to the land of the dead. Having the right tattoo was considered very important, as without it a person would not be recognised, and therefore be able to pass to the land of the spirits.
In other cultures, animals images and totems were tattooed to help people identify with the animal spirit, and to evoke their power to help with hunting and to ensure protection. In Polynesian culture it was believed having tattoos illustrated and increased the ‘mana’ (spiritual power) of the adorned, and enabled them to communicate more closely with the gods.
Even within Christianity, despite the marking of the body being prohibited in the Old Testament (Leviticus 19.28), crusaders going into battle would tattoo small crosses on their hands to ensure they got a Christian burial. Tattoos have long since been used as a symbol by people to express their identity and faith, and religious tattoos such as crosses, angels and doves are popular tattoos today.
Maori Tattoos
According to Maori legend, the art of tattooing started with a young man ‘Mataora’ who fell in love with a princess from the underworld called ‘Niwareka’. One day Mataora beat Niwareka and she fled to her father’s realm ‘Uetonga’. Wracked with guilt Mataora went to the underworld to find his love, and eventually managed to get to Uetonga with his face all muddy and dirty from his journey. Niwareka forgave him and before they returned to the human world, her father taught him the art of ‘Ta Moko’ (the process of tattooing).
Probably the most distinctive tattoos in the world are Maori tattoos. The tattoos are known as ‘moko’ and are an important part of Maori culture. Apart from slaves and commoners most Maori men were tattooed on the face, often with big spiral designs and curved shapes. Maori moko were unique as the process also involved making incisions into the skin, so that scars are formed. The tattoos were done using a bone chisel with a serrated or extremely sharp edge, which was then struck with a mallet. After grooves had been made in the skin, the chisel would be dipped in a sooty pigment such as a mixture of vegetables and dead caterpillars or burnt wood, and colouring would commence. Tattooing for men commenced at puberty and marked a young mans rite of passage. As a man went through life, any important milestones would be interpreted into a design and tattooed onto their bodies.
Ta Moko (the process of tattooing) was long and painful, and as battles occurred frequently there often wasn’t much time for healing. There were also strict rules to follow while the moko was healing, including absolutely no sexual intimacy, as well as not being able to eat any solid food. This meant that food needed to be liquidised and fed to them through a wooden funnel. Sometimes leaves from the native ‘Karuka’ tree were placed on the wounds to aid healing, and it was also believed that flute music and chanting poems would help alleviate the pain.
Facial moko were a great source of pride for men which they believed made them more attractive to women and fierce in battles. For women tattoos were not as elaborate, and having their lips outlined and coloured in with solid blue was considered very beautiful. For men their moko served as a sign of identity. Different areas of the face related to different aspects of their identity. For example; moko on the central forehead referred to their rank, moko on their cheek referred to what they did for work, and moko on each side of the face indicated their ancestry, one side from their mother’s side and the other from their father’s side.
It is suggested that the art of tattooing along with other Maori traditions, started to die out after the coming of European settlers
Since the 1990’s Maori traditions seem to be having a revival, and also spreading to the West, which has caused a lot of controversy. The bold patterns and symbols used in moko are very appealing to people wanting tattoos. However the messages contained within the moko are of great importance to the Maori, as they tell of the wearer’s value, genealogy and social standing. Copying these designs would be considered to be stealing a part of someone’s identity and therefore insulting to the Maori people. For anyone interested in having a Maori inspired tattoo it would be a good idea to search out a tattooist who is knowledgeable about these issues, and can design a tattoo without the symbolic ties.
More recent history
Whereas in the past tattoos were often associated with the higher classes within society, by the 1900’s they was losing their popularity and it could be said the popularity of tattooing crossed the classes, when tattooing became popular among sailors. It almost became a ritual for sailors to mark their visits to ports by getting drunk, laid and tattooed. This most probably contributed to the negative stigmatisation of people with tattoos that occurred from the 1940’s onwards. In the 1960’s rock stars such as Janis Joplin started getting tattoos, and these were seen as a political statement of their non conformity and rebellious streak. The perception of tattooing has certainly changed a lot over the years and is not now confined to people from certain classes or cultures, or to illustrate a person’s non conformity. Tattoos also generally don’t have the deep meanings, importance and symbolism they may have had in the past. Today an increasing number of people from all walks of life, from white collar professionals to middle aged mums, are choosing to get tattoos to express their individuality and ultimately decorate their bodies.
Wednesday, August 04, 2010
Extreme Bodies Bone Breaking Beauty
In my article; ‘An exploration of an obsession with body image’ (February 2008), one of the areas I explore is the rising popularity of plastic surgery. In 2006 the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic surgeons reported a 31% rise from the previous year, in plastic surgery procedures, and an almost 90% rise in liposuction procedures. However body modification is not just a modern practice. Throughout history people have painted, pierced, tattooed, adorned and even reshaped their bodies.
‘Extreme Bodies’ is a series of articles exploring the history of body modification. Last month ‘Extreme Bodies’ started off with a discussion of the traditional practice of female genital surgery, and this month looks at the practice of foot binding in China.
Perceptions of ‘beauty’ differ over time, and from culture to culture. Throughout history people have strived to achieve ‘beauty’, often with severe health consequences. Tales such as modern day breast implants rupturing, and ribs being broken as a result of wearing corsets in the 19th century are commonplace. However deliberately breaking bones in the pursuit of beauty is something we may have difficulty understanding in today’s society. The ancient Chinese tradition of foot binding involved just this, and at the time tiny ‘lotus flower’ or ‘golden lily’ feet were not only considered beautiful, but also determined women’s role and status in society.
Foot binding was a practice that was carried out on young girls for around a thousand years, until it was made illegal at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was thought to have started out as a practice only carried out by the elite, as a way of illustrating their higher status in society. However by the 11th and 12th century it became popular in families of people of all social classes. Only girls from the poorest families, who needed women as well as men to be able to work the fields, did not go through this process
Foot binding occurred between the ages of 4 and 7. It was thought this was the best time as young girl’s bones were still flexible. Also they were mature enough to understand they had to go through this period of intense pain in order to become women, meet the ideal of feminine beauty (at the time), and to gain status within a male dominated society.
It was during this time that daughters would often bond with their mothers, as their mothers imparted knowledge about female survival, and they grew to understand how their mothers had gone through the same pain. Going through and surviving the process of foot binding became a rite of passage for young girls, and demonstrated patience and selflessness, which were considered important qualities by prospective husbands.
The process involves wrapping young girl’s feet in tight bandages so they would not grow past 3 to 6 inches. In preparation the foot was soaked in hot water and massaged to soften it up. Then the toes of the feet were turned under and pushed against the sole of the foot, to form a concave shape and were bound with linen strips. The big toe would be left to ensure the girls still had some balance. Every couple of days the binding would be taken off and rebound even tighter. The girls were also encouraged to walk, so that their weight would crush the feet into the desired shape. In Lisa See’s illuminating novel ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’ the central character, Lily, describes going through the process:
“The bindings were then removed, and Mama and Aunt checked our toenails, shaved calluses, scrubbed away dead skin, dabbed on more alum and perfume to disguise the odour of our putrefying flesh, and wrapped new clean bindings, even tighter this time.”
If they were bound right the four small toes of each foot would break within the first year, and in time the bones in the arch of the foot would also break:
“One day, as I made one of my trips across the room, I heard something crack. One of my toes had broken. I thought the sound was something internal to my own body, but it was so sharp that everyone in the women’s chamber heard it. My mother’s eyes zeroed in on me. “Move! Progress is finally being made!” Walking my whole body trembled. By nightfall the eight toes that needed to break had broken, but I was still made to walk. I felt my broken toes under the weight of every step I took, for they were loose in my shoes. The freshly created space where once there had been a joint was now a gelatinous infinity of torture.”
From ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’ by Lisa See 2005
The result over time was ‘lotus feet’ which would fit into tiny lotus shoes.
Each rebinding of the feet would be accompanied by bleeding, and peeling of the skin and rotten flesh. The very nature of foot binding affected the circulation of blood to the feet, and that could result in toes completely dying and falling off. In some cases the foot would die altogether, which would leave a smell that stayed with them for life, as well as excruciating pain. The increased risk of infection and gangrene could, and often did, ultimately lead to death.
The health consequences of foot binding were likely to continue into adulthood. Women would often suffer from lower back problems resulting from their body weight being borne by their heels, which would jar their spine. There was almost more likelihood of falls, and studies have suggested women with bound feet had lower bone density, so were more likely to suffer from broken bones.
It was believed the smaller a woman’s feet the more desirable they were to prospective husbands. They were therefore able to marry into a good family and command a good bride price. This was important to ensure the families status in society, and provide security. A girl with a three inch sole would be considered more attractive than a girl who was a natural beauty, but had big feet. Indeed women without bound feet were the subject of ridicule, and were thought to be freaks. The practice became so prominent that families would demand a woman with tiny feet when looking for a wife for their sons.
There are many theories and explanations as to why the practice of foot binding was so popular and carried on for so long? One being that it was an erotic turn on for men. It was reported that seeing and holding small feet, would have the same effect on Chinese men than seeing a firm young bosom would have on European men. The disfigured female foot was often the centre of foreplay, and men would caress their wife’s slippered feet. Ancient love manuals illustrated many ways of playing with a woman’s bound feet, and the delights and beauty of bound feet was also the subject of much poetry of the time. Women with bound feet appeared fragile and delicate, and walked as if they were floating. Their feet were hidden under beautifully embroidered shoes which gave a sense of mystery. All these elements were considered erotic, and increased the allure of the female.
Another theory is that foot binding was a form of social control over women. Women who had their feet bound were more easily controlled by their husbands. Women with bound feet couldn’t walk long distances without aid, and were therefore confined to home, meaning they were less able to be independent and this ensured their subservience to their husbands. At the time women were considered to be second class citizens, with their only purpose in life being to be a wife and a mother of sons. It is argued that foot binding was a practice which reinforced the idea of women as a commodity, and suggested they had no use in productive work.
When foot binding was outlawed, women were ordered to remove bindings, and this was met with a mixed response. It had after all been part of Chinese culture and history for as long as people could remember, and ideas and beliefs were unlikely to change overnight. Many women, especially in rural areas, still believed they would be unable to find husbands with big feet, and continued the practise in secret. By doing this they risked becoming social outcasts, and being fined or punished.
It has taken a long time for foot binding to become a part of history, as opposed to an integral part of Chinese life, and there are still a few women around today with bound feet. Their feelings about the custom are divided. Some talk about it with a sense of pride, while others recall their experiences with anger and resentment, and feel although they had to do it to guarantee their futures, it ultimately lead to much suffering.
I would like to thank Lisa See for giving me permission to reproduce a couple of paragraphs from her book (for this blog posting). For anyone interested in Chinese women’s history I would recommend reading Lisa’s novel ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’; which offers a great insight into the lives of women in 19th century China. It follows the friendship of Lily and her ‘old same’; Snow Flower, and how they communicated by passing messages, written in an exclusively female secret language called ‘nu shu’, on a silk fan. Coming from different social and economic backgrounds the story follows Lily and Snow Flower as they go through foot binding, arranged marriages, the birth of their children, disease, war, and family tragedies at a time when women were regarded as subordinate in a male world.
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan by Lisa See 2005 is published by Bloomsbury.
‘Extreme Bodies’ is a series of articles exploring the history of body modification. Last month ‘Extreme Bodies’ started off with a discussion of the traditional practice of female genital surgery, and this month looks at the practice of foot binding in China.
Perceptions of ‘beauty’ differ over time, and from culture to culture. Throughout history people have strived to achieve ‘beauty’, often with severe health consequences. Tales such as modern day breast implants rupturing, and ribs being broken as a result of wearing corsets in the 19th century are commonplace. However deliberately breaking bones in the pursuit of beauty is something we may have difficulty understanding in today’s society. The ancient Chinese tradition of foot binding involved just this, and at the time tiny ‘lotus flower’ or ‘golden lily’ feet were not only considered beautiful, but also determined women’s role and status in society.
Foot binding was a practice that was carried out on young girls for around a thousand years, until it was made illegal at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was thought to have started out as a practice only carried out by the elite, as a way of illustrating their higher status in society. However by the 11th and 12th century it became popular in families of people of all social classes. Only girls from the poorest families, who needed women as well as men to be able to work the fields, did not go through this process
Foot binding occurred between the ages of 4 and 7. It was thought this was the best time as young girl’s bones were still flexible. Also they were mature enough to understand they had to go through this period of intense pain in order to become women, meet the ideal of feminine beauty (at the time), and to gain status within a male dominated society.
It was during this time that daughters would often bond with their mothers, as their mothers imparted knowledge about female survival, and they grew to understand how their mothers had gone through the same pain. Going through and surviving the process of foot binding became a rite of passage for young girls, and demonstrated patience and selflessness, which were considered important qualities by prospective husbands.
The process involves wrapping young girl’s feet in tight bandages so they would not grow past 3 to 6 inches. In preparation the foot was soaked in hot water and massaged to soften it up. Then the toes of the feet were turned under and pushed against the sole of the foot, to form a concave shape and were bound with linen strips. The big toe would be left to ensure the girls still had some balance. Every couple of days the binding would be taken off and rebound even tighter. The girls were also encouraged to walk, so that their weight would crush the feet into the desired shape. In Lisa See’s illuminating novel ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’ the central character, Lily, describes going through the process:
“The bindings were then removed, and Mama and Aunt checked our toenails, shaved calluses, scrubbed away dead skin, dabbed on more alum and perfume to disguise the odour of our putrefying flesh, and wrapped new clean bindings, even tighter this time.”
If they were bound right the four small toes of each foot would break within the first year, and in time the bones in the arch of the foot would also break:
“One day, as I made one of my trips across the room, I heard something crack. One of my toes had broken. I thought the sound was something internal to my own body, but it was so sharp that everyone in the women’s chamber heard it. My mother’s eyes zeroed in on me. “Move! Progress is finally being made!” Walking my whole body trembled. By nightfall the eight toes that needed to break had broken, but I was still made to walk. I felt my broken toes under the weight of every step I took, for they were loose in my shoes. The freshly created space where once there had been a joint was now a gelatinous infinity of torture.”
From ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’ by Lisa See 2005
The result over time was ‘lotus feet’ which would fit into tiny lotus shoes.
Each rebinding of the feet would be accompanied by bleeding, and peeling of the skin and rotten flesh. The very nature of foot binding affected the circulation of blood to the feet, and that could result in toes completely dying and falling off. In some cases the foot would die altogether, which would leave a smell that stayed with them for life, as well as excruciating pain. The increased risk of infection and gangrene could, and often did, ultimately lead to death.
The health consequences of foot binding were likely to continue into adulthood. Women would often suffer from lower back problems resulting from their body weight being borne by their heels, which would jar their spine. There was almost more likelihood of falls, and studies have suggested women with bound feet had lower bone density, so were more likely to suffer from broken bones.
It was believed the smaller a woman’s feet the more desirable they were to prospective husbands. They were therefore able to marry into a good family and command a good bride price. This was important to ensure the families status in society, and provide security. A girl with a three inch sole would be considered more attractive than a girl who was a natural beauty, but had big feet. Indeed women without bound feet were the subject of ridicule, and were thought to be freaks. The practice became so prominent that families would demand a woman with tiny feet when looking for a wife for their sons.
There are many theories and explanations as to why the practice of foot binding was so popular and carried on for so long? One being that it was an erotic turn on for men. It was reported that seeing and holding small feet, would have the same effect on Chinese men than seeing a firm young bosom would have on European men. The disfigured female foot was often the centre of foreplay, and men would caress their wife’s slippered feet. Ancient love manuals illustrated many ways of playing with a woman’s bound feet, and the delights and beauty of bound feet was also the subject of much poetry of the time. Women with bound feet appeared fragile and delicate, and walked as if they were floating. Their feet were hidden under beautifully embroidered shoes which gave a sense of mystery. All these elements were considered erotic, and increased the allure of the female.
Another theory is that foot binding was a form of social control over women. Women who had their feet bound were more easily controlled by their husbands. Women with bound feet couldn’t walk long distances without aid, and were therefore confined to home, meaning they were less able to be independent and this ensured their subservience to their husbands. At the time women were considered to be second class citizens, with their only purpose in life being to be a wife and a mother of sons. It is argued that foot binding was a practice which reinforced the idea of women as a commodity, and suggested they had no use in productive work.
When foot binding was outlawed, women were ordered to remove bindings, and this was met with a mixed response. It had after all been part of Chinese culture and history for as long as people could remember, and ideas and beliefs were unlikely to change overnight. Many women, especially in rural areas, still believed they would be unable to find husbands with big feet, and continued the practise in secret. By doing this they risked becoming social outcasts, and being fined or punished.
It has taken a long time for foot binding to become a part of history, as opposed to an integral part of Chinese life, and there are still a few women around today with bound feet. Their feelings about the custom are divided. Some talk about it with a sense of pride, while others recall their experiences with anger and resentment, and feel although they had to do it to guarantee their futures, it ultimately lead to much suffering.
I would like to thank Lisa See for giving me permission to reproduce a couple of paragraphs from her book (for this blog posting). For anyone interested in Chinese women’s history I would recommend reading Lisa’s novel ‘Snow Flower and the Secret Fan’; which offers a great insight into the lives of women in 19th century China. It follows the friendship of Lily and her ‘old same’; Snow Flower, and how they communicated by passing messages, written in an exclusively female secret language called ‘nu shu’, on a silk fan. Coming from different social and economic backgrounds the story follows Lily and Snow Flower as they go through foot binding, arranged marriages, the birth of their children, disease, war, and family tragedies at a time when women were regarded as subordinate in a male world.
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan by Lisa See 2005 is published by Bloomsbury.
Wednesday, July 07, 2010
Extreme Bodies: Female Circumcision and Infibulation
In my article; ‘An exploration of an obsession with body image', one of the areas I explore is the rising popularity of plastic surgery. In 2006 the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic surgeons reported a 31% rise from the previous year, in plastic surgery procedures, and an almost 90% rise in liposuction procedures. However body modification is not just a modern practice. Throughout history people have painted, pierced, tattooed, adorned and even reshaped their bodies.
This week sees the beginning of a series of articles (posted once a month) exploring the history of body modification. ‘Extreme Bodies’ starts off with a discussion of the traditional practice of female genital surgery. In coming weeks I will be exploring such areas as foot binding, and the history of adorning and illustrating our bodies.
Female Circumcision and Infibulation
For centuries in many parts of Africa and the Middle East, the practice of female circumcision and infibulation has been a rite of passage for young girls. Even though it is now currently illegal in many countries, it is still reported to be widely practised.
The procedures performed on young girls differ from community to community. Circumcision involves the removal of the clitoral hood (with or without excision of the clitoris). Often the procedure would include the removal of the labia minora (the inner lips of the vulva). Infibulation is the practice of sewing together the labia majora, (the outer lips of the vulva) to partially seal the vagina and leave only a small opening.
The day of these procedures were celebrated by the families, and considered to be more important than their wedding day. It was widely believed these procedures would make a woman clean, beautiful, presentable, and able to satisfy her husband. The only people who didn’t undergo these practices were prostitutes, and members of outcast or ‘slave’ groups.
At the time unmarried women were seen to have no rights or status in society, and without undergoing these procedures they were seen as unmarriageable. A girl’s virginity was considered essential when arranging a marriage, and often mothers would regularly check their daughter’s bodies to ensure they are still sewn up tightly. The tighter a girl was sewn up the more marriageable she was.
One belief is that the reasoning behind these practises was that women were assumed by nature to be sexually promiscuous, and could not be trusted to control their sexual needs. These practices are reported to dampen their sex drives, as well as their sexual sensitivity. It was also thought up until a few decades ago, that the clitoris was a dangerous part of the female anatomy, and could prove fatal to a man if it touched his penis.
Circumcision and infibulation was carried out before girls reached menstruation and quite commonly as early as age 3. Practitioners with little medical knowledge would perform the practise without anaesthetic, using sharp instruments such as razor blades and scissors. It is reported these instruments were used on several girls in a row without being cleaned, which would often lead to infections and increased the possibility of viruses such as HIV being passed on. Other possible health consequences of these practices include pelvic complications, and recurrent urinary tract infections. The onset of menstruation also created problems such as blockages, and a build up of clots, due to the vaginal opening being too small.
However a girl’s lot did not end here, as soon after menstruation marriage would be likely to bring further pain. In some communities she would be cut open to allow access by her husband, and then sewn up again afterwards to ensure fidelity. With high birth rates a woman would be cut open and re-sewn many times during her reproductive years. In other communities, this did not happen and the consummation of the marriage as well as childbirth would cause tearing and extreme pain.
Until the second half of the 20th century, female circumcision was relatively unheard of in the West. It wasn’t until the 1950’s and 1960’s that African activists first brought it to the attention of the Western world. It then took until the late 1970’s for organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) to issue an official policy statement on female circumcision. Much discussion then ensued, and in 1984 African women’s organisations met in Dakar, Senegal, and formed the Inter African Committee against Harmful Traditional practices (IAC), with members from over 20 countries. IAC has been proactive in educating many communities in Africa of the harmful effects of female circumcision.
With the resulting debate and political movement surrounding female circumcision, some organisations have adopted the term ‘female mutilation’; this however has received much criticism. The main criticism is that African cultural practices are being assessed using a western perspective. Many African women have perceived the political outcry as condescending and disrespectful towards their culture. One anthropologist suggested these discussions have seemed to objectify African women as ignorant and powerless, while Western women are seen as in control. The question could be asked do African women perceive Western women as in control when they put themselves through medically unnecessary cosmetic surgery, such as breast enlargement to increase sexual desirability.
From our Western cultural viewpoint, female circumcision and infibulation is seen as a barbaric practise, which deprives women of sexual sensitivity and pleasure, and can have serious health consequences. However it has been an integral part of the cultural and ethnic identity of many African and Middle Eastern communities for centuries. For women in these communities circumcision is part of their life, it’s a coming of age ritual which is celebrated, and the belief circumcision is essential for a woman to be a pure and good wife, is not likely to be influenced or changed by political condemnation.
Similarly a legal approach does not seem to be proving effective. Traditional cultural beliefs are so strong, that where countries in Africa have tried to outlaw these practices, there has been little enforcement of these laws. Often this has lead to women crossing borders in order to still receive the procedure, or them carrying out circumcision and infibulation in secret, often with less hygienic conditions.
An approach using public information campaigns, and working with women to highlight the possible health consequences of female genital surgery may be more useful. One example of this is happening in Nigeria, where midwives and health visitors are being trained to work with women from religious groups and social clubs, to teach them about the possible harmful effects of circumcision and infibulation. This approach has also had some success in one area of Kenya, where an alternative ritual ceremony for young girls has been developed which does not include any genital surgery.
What is certain is that beliefs that have been built up over centuries are going to take time to change. One major barrier to the success of any education/information campaigns is the socioeconomic dependency of women on men in these communities. There is unlikely to be any substantial change without improvements in women’s status in society. However ideas and beliefs do change over time, and working with affected women and men, treating them with respect, and educating and informing them of the health consequences of genital surgery, it becomes more possible to bring about positive change, and for people to start saying no to harmful traditional practices.
For more information look at:
The Inter-African Committee on traditional practices: http://www.iac-ciaf.com/index.htm
The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project: http://www.fgmnetwork.org/index.php (visit their bookstore for a wide range of books on the subject)
One book I would recommend is ‘Possessing the secret of Joy’ by Alice Walker: a novel about the life of a woman called Tashi and her experiences
This week sees the beginning of a series of articles (posted once a month) exploring the history of body modification. ‘Extreme Bodies’ starts off with a discussion of the traditional practice of female genital surgery. In coming weeks I will be exploring such areas as foot binding, and the history of adorning and illustrating our bodies.
Female Circumcision and Infibulation
For centuries in many parts of Africa and the Middle East, the practice of female circumcision and infibulation has been a rite of passage for young girls. Even though it is now currently illegal in many countries, it is still reported to be widely practised.
The procedures performed on young girls differ from community to community. Circumcision involves the removal of the clitoral hood (with or without excision of the clitoris). Often the procedure would include the removal of the labia minora (the inner lips of the vulva). Infibulation is the practice of sewing together the labia majora, (the outer lips of the vulva) to partially seal the vagina and leave only a small opening.
The day of these procedures were celebrated by the families, and considered to be more important than their wedding day. It was widely believed these procedures would make a woman clean, beautiful, presentable, and able to satisfy her husband. The only people who didn’t undergo these practices were prostitutes, and members of outcast or ‘slave’ groups.
At the time unmarried women were seen to have no rights or status in society, and without undergoing these procedures they were seen as unmarriageable. A girl’s virginity was considered essential when arranging a marriage, and often mothers would regularly check their daughter’s bodies to ensure they are still sewn up tightly. The tighter a girl was sewn up the more marriageable she was.
One belief is that the reasoning behind these practises was that women were assumed by nature to be sexually promiscuous, and could not be trusted to control their sexual needs. These practices are reported to dampen their sex drives, as well as their sexual sensitivity. It was also thought up until a few decades ago, that the clitoris was a dangerous part of the female anatomy, and could prove fatal to a man if it touched his penis.
Circumcision and infibulation was carried out before girls reached menstruation and quite commonly as early as age 3. Practitioners with little medical knowledge would perform the practise without anaesthetic, using sharp instruments such as razor blades and scissors. It is reported these instruments were used on several girls in a row without being cleaned, which would often lead to infections and increased the possibility of viruses such as HIV being passed on. Other possible health consequences of these practices include pelvic complications, and recurrent urinary tract infections. The onset of menstruation also created problems such as blockages, and a build up of clots, due to the vaginal opening being too small.
However a girl’s lot did not end here, as soon after menstruation marriage would be likely to bring further pain. In some communities she would be cut open to allow access by her husband, and then sewn up again afterwards to ensure fidelity. With high birth rates a woman would be cut open and re-sewn many times during her reproductive years. In other communities, this did not happen and the consummation of the marriage as well as childbirth would cause tearing and extreme pain.
Until the second half of the 20th century, female circumcision was relatively unheard of in the West. It wasn’t until the 1950’s and 1960’s that African activists first brought it to the attention of the Western world. It then took until the late 1970’s for organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) to issue an official policy statement on female circumcision. Much discussion then ensued, and in 1984 African women’s organisations met in Dakar, Senegal, and formed the Inter African Committee against Harmful Traditional practices (IAC), with members from over 20 countries. IAC has been proactive in educating many communities in Africa of the harmful effects of female circumcision.
With the resulting debate and political movement surrounding female circumcision, some organisations have adopted the term ‘female mutilation’; this however has received much criticism. The main criticism is that African cultural practices are being assessed using a western perspective. Many African women have perceived the political outcry as condescending and disrespectful towards their culture. One anthropologist suggested these discussions have seemed to objectify African women as ignorant and powerless, while Western women are seen as in control. The question could be asked do African women perceive Western women as in control when they put themselves through medically unnecessary cosmetic surgery, such as breast enlargement to increase sexual desirability.
From our Western cultural viewpoint, female circumcision and infibulation is seen as a barbaric practise, which deprives women of sexual sensitivity and pleasure, and can have serious health consequences. However it has been an integral part of the cultural and ethnic identity of many African and Middle Eastern communities for centuries. For women in these communities circumcision is part of their life, it’s a coming of age ritual which is celebrated, and the belief circumcision is essential for a woman to be a pure and good wife, is not likely to be influenced or changed by political condemnation.
Similarly a legal approach does not seem to be proving effective. Traditional cultural beliefs are so strong, that where countries in Africa have tried to outlaw these practices, there has been little enforcement of these laws. Often this has lead to women crossing borders in order to still receive the procedure, or them carrying out circumcision and infibulation in secret, often with less hygienic conditions.
An approach using public information campaigns, and working with women to highlight the possible health consequences of female genital surgery may be more useful. One example of this is happening in Nigeria, where midwives and health visitors are being trained to work with women from religious groups and social clubs, to teach them about the possible harmful effects of circumcision and infibulation. This approach has also had some success in one area of Kenya, where an alternative ritual ceremony for young girls has been developed which does not include any genital surgery.
What is certain is that beliefs that have been built up over centuries are going to take time to change. One major barrier to the success of any education/information campaigns is the socioeconomic dependency of women on men in these communities. There is unlikely to be any substantial change without improvements in women’s status in society. However ideas and beliefs do change over time, and working with affected women and men, treating them with respect, and educating and informing them of the health consequences of genital surgery, it becomes more possible to bring about positive change, and for people to start saying no to harmful traditional practices.
For more information look at:
The Inter-African Committee on traditional practices: http://www.iac-ciaf.com/index.htm
The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project: http://www.fgmnetwork.org/index.php (visit their bookstore for a wide range of books on the subject)
One book I would recommend is ‘Possessing the secret of Joy’ by Alice Walker: a novel about the life of a woman called Tashi and her experiences
Tuesday, June 01, 2010
An exploration of an obsession with body image
With the growing obesity epidemic in this country, losing weight has become big business, and programmes on healthy eating and how to lose weight, such as ‘You are what you eat’ and ‘Diet Doctors’ are rarely off our screens. However a problem that isn’t as well recognised is the growing number of people who are developing an obsession with their body image, and have a less than healthy relationship with food. Underlying a negative body image is often insecurity and low self esteem, and seeing constant images of thin and beautiful people in the media adds to feelings of shame, guilt and body-dissatisfaction.
In a recent survey undertaken by Grazia magazine, of the 5000 respondents, 7 out of 10 women said life would improve if they had better bodies. The survey found that many women had taken drastic measures, such as fasting and laxative use to try and lose weight. It concluded that on average, the women who took part, worried about their bodies every fifteen minutes. Generally it seems women are very critical and unhappy with their body shapes. Wanting to be slim and tone up is not a problem, but having an abnormal relationship with food which can lead to developing eating disorders is.
Women are constantly faced with unrealistic female body images, from on the catwalk, to in magazines, and on the television. Even when out shopping, women often find they are trying on clothes next to posters of size four models. Our current fixation with body image is unhealthy; many women are influenced greatly by these constant images of slenderness, which in turn affects their lives by condemning them to a life of constant regulation, transformation and ‘beautifying’ practices. The pressure to alter, modify, and transform women’s bodies to meet the cultural ideal affects how women eat, dress, and attend to daily rituals such as putting on make up, removal of body hair, and covering up bodily odours with deodorants and perfumes.
So why do we try and change our bodies and appearance? And why aren’t we able to be happy with ourselves the way we are?
Early feminist ideology argues that men’s desires are considered more important than women’s, and that women’s bodies are seen as objects which are sexualised for the convenience of men. However why we are so fixated with how we look, is likely to be far more complex than this.
French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926 – 1984) put forward that in society ‘discourses’ and truths are produced which act as a set of rules. He saw many women as conforming or ‘normalising’ to these rules. Through this discourse, categories are created such as beautiful, ugly, fat, thin, and women readily place themselves in these categories.
He suggests discourse changes over time. The idea of a perfect female figure for women to aspire to has changed over the years. The ‘ideal’ figure has got thinner and thinner over time. What was considered as an ideal body in the 1960’s is now thought of as a fuller figure. It could be argued that the ideal figure for women to normalise to, is now so thin they have no feminine curves, and are beginning to emulate the straighter figure of men.
An ‘inspecting gaze’ aids this normalisation, as surveillance has a disciplinary effect ensuring each individual is conforming to the norms. Being forever conscious of the gaze, often leads to women trying to make themselves acceptable objects for viewing. Whether a woman feels they are desirable or worthwhile is decided upon by how they internalise other people’s perceptions of themselves.
This ‘inspecting gaze’ can come from both men and women, and it would be quite unlikely for someone to say honestly they’ve never looked at someone and made judgements about their appearance. A survey undertaken by New Woman magazine in 2001, found that women felt under more pressure from other women to look good than they did men. 85% of respondents said other women were more likely to criticise them on their looks, while just 15% said men were likely to criticise them.
I believe Foucault’s theory has a lot of credibility. While I was at University I put on weight, and went up to a size 16. When I saw people I hadn’t seen for years, I was affected by how they saw me. They may have said ‘You look well’ or ‘Oh you’ve changed your hair colour’, however in my mind I felt they were being polite by not saying I’d put on a lot of weight. I’ve always had a slightly rebellious streak, questioning why I should conform to authority, however in this case I felt I wanted to conform, I wanted a thin body again. My intellectual reasoning was overridden by the ‘gaze’ and the discourse suggesting the norm was to be thin. By getting caught up in this dominant discourse I was also perpetuating it, and contributing towards my own objectification and the objectification of others.
While diet programmes on television point out the importance of trying to live a healthier lifestyle, by applauding women who have slimmed down and commenting on how beautiful they are, the dominant discourse that thin is alright and fat isn’t is reinforced. Women are constantly being pressurized not to leave their bodies in their natural state, maybe with a rounded stomach and a few wobbly bits, instead they are encouraged to alter and modify their bodies with exercise and diet.
This dominant discourse and the resulting pressure to be slim and toned, can lead to many women developing unhealthy relationships with food, and also contribute towards the growing problem of exercise compulsion. ‘Supersize vs Superskinny’ on Channel four is one programme that is starting to bring this problem to our attention. In last nights programme (5th February 2008) ‘superskinny’ Amy Jo who avoided carbohydrates and had an intense exercise regime, weighed in at 7st7lbs. Having to swap diets for a week with ‘supersize’ Andy, Amy Jo was presented with a takeaway curry which she described as her worst nightmare. After the first day she was sure she had some overhang over the top of her trousers. However she did start to address her fear of food, and by the end of the week she was managing to finish off the meals she was being given. The Grazia survey suggests that is not just a small minority of women who have a fearful relationship with food. Many women are constantly thinking ‘shall I eat or not eat’ and if they find themselves 2lbs heavier when stepping on the scales, it can ruin their day.
After three months Amy Jo had only put on 5lbs, while Andy had managed to lose over 3st in weight. She mentioned that now she was eating more, she was able to run for an hour and a half which she couldn’t manage before. I’m unconvinced she actually managed to address her problem with body image, and maybe she was exercising more to compensate for consuming more calories. Exercise compulsion is another big problem for many women.
For some women, watching what they eat to achieve the perfect figure isn’t enough, and exercise offers a way to keep all their soft bodily bulges flat and firm. A compulsive exerciser may exercise one or two hours most days, and not give themselves a break even when they are feeling unwell. One of Amy Jo’s friends mentioned that if she went out and ate a meal, she would run to the gym the next day. For compulsive exercisers, if they miss a session they may make up for it by exercising longer and harder the next day, or by simply not eating. It could be argued that compulsive exercisers do not undertake exercise for fun or pleasure, but they do it to conform to the ‘rules’ and ‘norms’ created by the dominant discourse to be thin.
A combination of eating too little and exercising too much can be very dangerous for our health. As well as a risk of injury to bones joints and ligaments from excessive demands placed on them, if someone isn’t eating enough the body will resort to using muscle as a source of energy, so muscles can literally begin to waste away. Excessive exercise can also affect the balance of hormones in the body, and can place too much stress on the heart. For many women exercise is seen as a way of reversing the effects of eating, however they could be exercising their way to an early grave.
When not taken to extremes, exercise is an important factor in any healthy lifestyle. However often people are put off exercise because of their negative body image; they feel ashamed of their bodies, and don’t want to expose themselves especially in front of fit people. In a bid to lose weight, at University, I started using the Gym. I was exercising purely because I felt fat and that went against the dominant ‘norms’. Although I enjoyed the exercise when I got going, I also felt that exercising in the University gym made me feel worse about my body. I was often the biggest person there, and with all the slender bodies surrounding me, using their disciplinary gazes, I felt I had no right to be there, and felt the gym was a place for thin fit people
Another big factor in the problem we have with body image, as a society, is the increased availability of plastic surgery and procedures which can change the way someone looks. With celebrities being constantly photographed for a rise of magazines obsessed with celebrities lives and body shapes, they are under a lot of pressure to stay looking good. However by buying into the nip and tuck culture, this in turn puts increased pressure on others who are unhappy with their body image.
Television programmes such as ‘Ten Years Younger’ and ‘Cosmetic Surgery live’ illustrate the worrying trend of women normalising themselves to the dominant discourse, by going under the knife to alter their body shape and appearance. These programmes take advantage of the vulnerabilities of women obsessed with physical perfection, and these procedures are becoming seen as a normal step beyond the beauty salon.
With plastic surgery Cher has transformed her body into a symmetrical, youthful looking, conventional body, which has become an ideal for other women to strive towards. Plastic surgery is often portrayed as being a choice that women can make. Cher has created a body she wanted, which could be seen as her being in control of her body. However it could also be argued she has just conformed to the dominant discourse. While I was a size 16, when seeing Cher, the older woman, looking thin and youthful, I felt I was not trying hard enough. My body did not match up with my perception (created by discourse) of the ‘ideal’ body. I succumb to my hunger, and I prioritized studying and family over exercise, and felt I was not in control.
As Cher has taken measures to stay looking young, many older women are also falling into the trap of chasing external youthful looks. As we get older our metabolic rate slows down, we are more likely to lay down more body fat, and inevitably we develop wrinkles. A survey by Top Sante magazine of 2000 women found that many women over 40 were unhappy with their bodies, and would consider plastic surgery. The British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons reported a particular rise in anti-ageing procedures in 2005, with a 42% rise in facelifts, and a 50% rise in eyelid surgery. The survey also suggested many older women were developing eating disorders because they hated the way they look. It seems we no longer want to age gracefully, but we want to manage the way we age.
Women exercising and losing weight could be interpreted as them being in control of their lives; however it could also be argued that with so many women suffering from eating disorders, exercise compulsion and self criticism that they are not in control at all. Often women who are thin do feel they are in control of their bodies. However in order to keep their slender figures they need to repress feelings of hunger, watch what they eat, and exercise to keep all the soft bodily bulges flat and firm. They become in effect slaves to the ‘rules’ and ‘norms’ created by the dominant discourse.
Foucault suggests that resistance to these discourses, known as counter discourses, can produce new ‘truths’ and ‘knowledge’. An example of discourse changing over time could be illustrated by the changing views of single parenthood. As recently as the 1950’s, single parents were considered ‘fallen women’, and were often pressurized to give their babies away. In today’s society single parenting is much more acceptable, with many women choosing to have babies on their own.
The good news is, that many counter discourses are developing. ‘Supersize vs Superskinny’, for example, is challenging the idea that thin is alright and fat isn’t, by highlighting the health risks of obsessive dieting and exercise. On top of this advertising campaigns by companies such as the Body Shop and Dove, are using models with a range of body shapes and sizes. The Body shop’s ‘Self esteem policy’ believes people should be proud and happy how they are, and do not use models who are very thin or very young.
Dove’s award winning ‘real beauty’ campaign has shown other retailers the effectiveness of depicting realistic body images, and as a result Revlon has followed suit by dropping celebrity endorsements, and instead searching for ‘real’ women to front their campaigns. Dove’s campaign has included undertaking a study of 3300 girls and women, called ‘Beyond Stereotypes, Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs’, which highlights the problems as a society we have with body image, and suggests we can help change this. By using real women the Body Shop and Dove are presenting a counter discourse. They both hope to promote real natural beauty instead of the unrealistically thin images normally associated with modelling.
Television programmes such as ‘LK today’ and ‘This Morning’ are also choosing to be part of the counter discourse, by using models of varying shapes and sizes in their fashion features. As previously mentioned the idea of the perfect figure has changed, and over time it has got thinner and thinner. With more and more people promoting a counter discourse, maybe in time women will become happier with the way they are, and love and celebrate their individuality, lumps and bumps, wrinkles and all.
(This article was originally posted in 2008)
In a recent survey undertaken by Grazia magazine, of the 5000 respondents, 7 out of 10 women said life would improve if they had better bodies. The survey found that many women had taken drastic measures, such as fasting and laxative use to try and lose weight. It concluded that on average, the women who took part, worried about their bodies every fifteen minutes. Generally it seems women are very critical and unhappy with their body shapes. Wanting to be slim and tone up is not a problem, but having an abnormal relationship with food which can lead to developing eating disorders is.
Women are constantly faced with unrealistic female body images, from on the catwalk, to in magazines, and on the television. Even when out shopping, women often find they are trying on clothes next to posters of size four models. Our current fixation with body image is unhealthy; many women are influenced greatly by these constant images of slenderness, which in turn affects their lives by condemning them to a life of constant regulation, transformation and ‘beautifying’ practices. The pressure to alter, modify, and transform women’s bodies to meet the cultural ideal affects how women eat, dress, and attend to daily rituals such as putting on make up, removal of body hair, and covering up bodily odours with deodorants and perfumes.
So why do we try and change our bodies and appearance? And why aren’t we able to be happy with ourselves the way we are?
Early feminist ideology argues that men’s desires are considered more important than women’s, and that women’s bodies are seen as objects which are sexualised for the convenience of men. However why we are so fixated with how we look, is likely to be far more complex than this.
French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926 – 1984) put forward that in society ‘discourses’ and truths are produced which act as a set of rules. He saw many women as conforming or ‘normalising’ to these rules. Through this discourse, categories are created such as beautiful, ugly, fat, thin, and women readily place themselves in these categories.
He suggests discourse changes over time. The idea of a perfect female figure for women to aspire to has changed over the years. The ‘ideal’ figure has got thinner and thinner over time. What was considered as an ideal body in the 1960’s is now thought of as a fuller figure. It could be argued that the ideal figure for women to normalise to, is now so thin they have no feminine curves, and are beginning to emulate the straighter figure of men.
An ‘inspecting gaze’ aids this normalisation, as surveillance has a disciplinary effect ensuring each individual is conforming to the norms. Being forever conscious of the gaze, often leads to women trying to make themselves acceptable objects for viewing. Whether a woman feels they are desirable or worthwhile is decided upon by how they internalise other people’s perceptions of themselves.
This ‘inspecting gaze’ can come from both men and women, and it would be quite unlikely for someone to say honestly they’ve never looked at someone and made judgements about their appearance. A survey undertaken by New Woman magazine in 2001, found that women felt under more pressure from other women to look good than they did men. 85% of respondents said other women were more likely to criticise them on their looks, while just 15% said men were likely to criticise them.
I believe Foucault’s theory has a lot of credibility. While I was at University I put on weight, and went up to a size 16. When I saw people I hadn’t seen for years, I was affected by how they saw me. They may have said ‘You look well’ or ‘Oh you’ve changed your hair colour’, however in my mind I felt they were being polite by not saying I’d put on a lot of weight. I’ve always had a slightly rebellious streak, questioning why I should conform to authority, however in this case I felt I wanted to conform, I wanted a thin body again. My intellectual reasoning was overridden by the ‘gaze’ and the discourse suggesting the norm was to be thin. By getting caught up in this dominant discourse I was also perpetuating it, and contributing towards my own objectification and the objectification of others.
While diet programmes on television point out the importance of trying to live a healthier lifestyle, by applauding women who have slimmed down and commenting on how beautiful they are, the dominant discourse that thin is alright and fat isn’t is reinforced. Women are constantly being pressurized not to leave their bodies in their natural state, maybe with a rounded stomach and a few wobbly bits, instead they are encouraged to alter and modify their bodies with exercise and diet.
This dominant discourse and the resulting pressure to be slim and toned, can lead to many women developing unhealthy relationships with food, and also contribute towards the growing problem of exercise compulsion. ‘Supersize vs Superskinny’ on Channel four is one programme that is starting to bring this problem to our attention. In last nights programme (5th February 2008) ‘superskinny’ Amy Jo who avoided carbohydrates and had an intense exercise regime, weighed in at 7st7lbs. Having to swap diets for a week with ‘supersize’ Andy, Amy Jo was presented with a takeaway curry which she described as her worst nightmare. After the first day she was sure she had some overhang over the top of her trousers. However she did start to address her fear of food, and by the end of the week she was managing to finish off the meals she was being given. The Grazia survey suggests that is not just a small minority of women who have a fearful relationship with food. Many women are constantly thinking ‘shall I eat or not eat’ and if they find themselves 2lbs heavier when stepping on the scales, it can ruin their day.
After three months Amy Jo had only put on 5lbs, while Andy had managed to lose over 3st in weight. She mentioned that now she was eating more, she was able to run for an hour and a half which she couldn’t manage before. I’m unconvinced she actually managed to address her problem with body image, and maybe she was exercising more to compensate for consuming more calories. Exercise compulsion is another big problem for many women.
For some women, watching what they eat to achieve the perfect figure isn’t enough, and exercise offers a way to keep all their soft bodily bulges flat and firm. A compulsive exerciser may exercise one or two hours most days, and not give themselves a break even when they are feeling unwell. One of Amy Jo’s friends mentioned that if she went out and ate a meal, she would run to the gym the next day. For compulsive exercisers, if they miss a session they may make up for it by exercising longer and harder the next day, or by simply not eating. It could be argued that compulsive exercisers do not undertake exercise for fun or pleasure, but they do it to conform to the ‘rules’ and ‘norms’ created by the dominant discourse to be thin.
A combination of eating too little and exercising too much can be very dangerous for our health. As well as a risk of injury to bones joints and ligaments from excessive demands placed on them, if someone isn’t eating enough the body will resort to using muscle as a source of energy, so muscles can literally begin to waste away. Excessive exercise can also affect the balance of hormones in the body, and can place too much stress on the heart. For many women exercise is seen as a way of reversing the effects of eating, however they could be exercising their way to an early grave.
When not taken to extremes, exercise is an important factor in any healthy lifestyle. However often people are put off exercise because of their negative body image; they feel ashamed of their bodies, and don’t want to expose themselves especially in front of fit people. In a bid to lose weight, at University, I started using the Gym. I was exercising purely because I felt fat and that went against the dominant ‘norms’. Although I enjoyed the exercise when I got going, I also felt that exercising in the University gym made me feel worse about my body. I was often the biggest person there, and with all the slender bodies surrounding me, using their disciplinary gazes, I felt I had no right to be there, and felt the gym was a place for thin fit people
Another big factor in the problem we have with body image, as a society, is the increased availability of plastic surgery and procedures which can change the way someone looks. With celebrities being constantly photographed for a rise of magazines obsessed with celebrities lives and body shapes, they are under a lot of pressure to stay looking good. However by buying into the nip and tuck culture, this in turn puts increased pressure on others who are unhappy with their body image.
Television programmes such as ‘Ten Years Younger’ and ‘Cosmetic Surgery live’ illustrate the worrying trend of women normalising themselves to the dominant discourse, by going under the knife to alter their body shape and appearance. These programmes take advantage of the vulnerabilities of women obsessed with physical perfection, and these procedures are becoming seen as a normal step beyond the beauty salon.
With plastic surgery Cher has transformed her body into a symmetrical, youthful looking, conventional body, which has become an ideal for other women to strive towards. Plastic surgery is often portrayed as being a choice that women can make. Cher has created a body she wanted, which could be seen as her being in control of her body. However it could also be argued she has just conformed to the dominant discourse. While I was a size 16, when seeing Cher, the older woman, looking thin and youthful, I felt I was not trying hard enough. My body did not match up with my perception (created by discourse) of the ‘ideal’ body. I succumb to my hunger, and I prioritized studying and family over exercise, and felt I was not in control.
As Cher has taken measures to stay looking young, many older women are also falling into the trap of chasing external youthful looks. As we get older our metabolic rate slows down, we are more likely to lay down more body fat, and inevitably we develop wrinkles. A survey by Top Sante magazine of 2000 women found that many women over 40 were unhappy with their bodies, and would consider plastic surgery. The British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons reported a particular rise in anti-ageing procedures in 2005, with a 42% rise in facelifts, and a 50% rise in eyelid surgery. The survey also suggested many older women were developing eating disorders because they hated the way they look. It seems we no longer want to age gracefully, but we want to manage the way we age.
Women exercising and losing weight could be interpreted as them being in control of their lives; however it could also be argued that with so many women suffering from eating disorders, exercise compulsion and self criticism that they are not in control at all. Often women who are thin do feel they are in control of their bodies. However in order to keep their slender figures they need to repress feelings of hunger, watch what they eat, and exercise to keep all the soft bodily bulges flat and firm. They become in effect slaves to the ‘rules’ and ‘norms’ created by the dominant discourse.
Foucault suggests that resistance to these discourses, known as counter discourses, can produce new ‘truths’ and ‘knowledge’. An example of discourse changing over time could be illustrated by the changing views of single parenthood. As recently as the 1950’s, single parents were considered ‘fallen women’, and were often pressurized to give their babies away. In today’s society single parenting is much more acceptable, with many women choosing to have babies on their own.
The good news is, that many counter discourses are developing. ‘Supersize vs Superskinny’, for example, is challenging the idea that thin is alright and fat isn’t, by highlighting the health risks of obsessive dieting and exercise. On top of this advertising campaigns by companies such as the Body Shop and Dove, are using models with a range of body shapes and sizes. The Body shop’s ‘Self esteem policy’ believes people should be proud and happy how they are, and do not use models who are very thin or very young.
Dove’s award winning ‘real beauty’ campaign has shown other retailers the effectiveness of depicting realistic body images, and as a result Revlon has followed suit by dropping celebrity endorsements, and instead searching for ‘real’ women to front their campaigns. Dove’s campaign has included undertaking a study of 3300 girls and women, called ‘Beyond Stereotypes, Rebuilding the foundation of beauty beliefs’, which highlights the problems as a society we have with body image, and suggests we can help change this. By using real women the Body Shop and Dove are presenting a counter discourse. They both hope to promote real natural beauty instead of the unrealistically thin images normally associated with modelling.
Television programmes such as ‘LK today’ and ‘This Morning’ are also choosing to be part of the counter discourse, by using models of varying shapes and sizes in their fashion features. As previously mentioned the idea of the perfect figure has changed, and over time it has got thinner and thinner. With more and more people promoting a counter discourse, maybe in time women will become happier with the way they are, and love and celebrate their individuality, lumps and bumps, wrinkles and all.
(This article was originally posted in 2008)
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