Extreme Bodies: Female Circumcision and Infibulation

In my article; ‘An exploration of an obsession with body image', one of the areas I explore is the rising popularity of plastic surgery. In 2006 the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic surgeons reported a 31% rise from the previous year, in plastic surgery procedures, and an almost 90% rise in liposuction procedures. However body modification is not just a modern practice. Throughout history people have painted, pierced, tattooed, adorned and even reshaped their bodies.

This week sees the beginning of a series of articles (posted once a month) exploring the history of body modification. ‘Extreme Bodies’ starts off with a discussion of the traditional practice of female genital surgery. In coming weeks I will be exploring such areas as foot binding, and the history of adorning and illustrating our bodies.


Female Circumcision and Infibulation
For centuries in many parts of Africa and the Middle East, the practice of female circumcision and infibulation has been a rite of passage for young girls. Even though it is now currently illegal in many countries, it is still reported to be widely practised.

The procedures performed on young girls differ from community to community. Circumcision involves the removal of the clitoral hood (with or without excision of the clitoris). Often the procedure would include the removal of the labia minora (the inner lips of the vulva). Infibulation is the practice of sewing together the labia majora, (the outer lips of the vulva) to partially seal the vagina and leave only a small opening.

The day of these procedures were celebrated by the families, and considered to be more important than their wedding day. It was widely believed these procedures would make a woman clean, beautiful, presentable, and able to satisfy her husband. The only people who didn’t undergo these practices were prostitutes, and members of outcast or ‘slave’ groups.

At the time unmarried women were seen to have no rights or status in society, and without undergoing these procedures they were seen as unmarriageable. A girl’s virginity was considered essential when arranging a marriage, and often mothers would regularly check their daughter’s bodies to ensure they are still sewn up tightly. The tighter a girl was sewn up the more marriageable she was.

One belief is that the reasoning behind these practises was that women were assumed by nature to be sexually promiscuous, and could not be trusted to control their sexual needs. These practices are reported to dampen their sex drives, as well as their sexual sensitivity. It was also thought up until a few decades ago, that the clitoris was a dangerous part of the female anatomy, and could prove fatal to a man if it touched his penis.

Circumcision and infibulation was carried out before girls reached menstruation and quite commonly as early as age 3. Practitioners with little medical knowledge would perform the practise without anaesthetic, using sharp instruments such as razor blades and scissors. It is reported these instruments were used on several girls in a row without being cleaned, which would often lead to infections and increased the possibility of viruses such as HIV being passed on. Other possible health consequences of these practices include pelvic complications, and recurrent urinary tract infections. The onset of menstruation also created problems such as blockages, and a build up of clots, due to the vaginal opening being too small.

However a girl’s lot did not end here, as soon after menstruation marriage would be likely to bring further pain. In some communities she would be cut open to allow access by her husband, and then sewn up again afterwards to ensure fidelity. With high birth rates a woman would be cut open and re-sewn many times during her reproductive years. In other communities, this did not happen and the consummation of the marriage as well as childbirth would cause tearing and extreme pain.

Until the second half of the 20th century, female circumcision was relatively unheard of in the West. It wasn’t until the 1950’s and 1960’s that African activists first brought it to the attention of the Western world. It then took until the late 1970’s for organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) to issue an official policy statement on female circumcision. Much discussion then ensued, and in 1984 African women’s organisations met in Dakar, Senegal, and formed the Inter African Committee against Harmful Traditional practices (IAC), with members from over 20 countries. IAC has been proactive in educating many communities in Africa of the harmful effects of female circumcision.

With the resulting debate and political movement surrounding female circumcision, some organisations have adopted the term ‘female mutilation’; this however has received much criticism. The main criticism is that African cultural practices are being assessed using a western perspective. Many African women have perceived the political outcry as condescending and disrespectful towards their culture. One anthropologist suggested these discussions have seemed to objectify African women as ignorant and powerless, while Western women are seen as in control. The question could be asked do African women perceive Western women as in control when they put themselves through medically unnecessary cosmetic surgery, such as breast enlargement to increase sexual desirability.

From our Western cultural viewpoint, female circumcision and infibulation is seen as a barbaric practise, which deprives women of sexual sensitivity and pleasure, and can have serious health consequences. However it has been an integral part of the cultural and ethnic identity of many African and Middle Eastern communities for centuries. For women in these communities circumcision is part of their life, it’s a coming of age ritual which is celebrated, and the belief circumcision is essential for a woman to be a pure and good wife, is not likely to be influenced or changed by political condemnation.

Similarly a legal approach does not seem to be proving effective. Traditional cultural beliefs are so strong, that where countries in Africa have tried to outlaw these practices, there has been little enforcement of these laws. Often this has lead to women crossing borders in order to still receive the procedure, or them carrying out circumcision and infibulation in secret, often with less hygienic conditions.

An approach using public information campaigns, and working with women to highlight the possible health consequences of female genital surgery may be more useful. One example of this is happening in Nigeria, where midwives and health visitors are being trained to work with women from religious groups and social clubs, to teach them about the possible harmful effects of circumcision and infibulation. This approach has also had some success in one area of Kenya, where an alternative ritual ceremony for young girls has been developed which does not include any genital surgery.

What is certain is that beliefs that have been built up over centuries are going to take time to change. One major barrier to the success of any education/information campaigns is the socioeconomic dependency of women on men in these communities. There is unlikely to be any substantial change without improvements in women’s status in society. However ideas and beliefs do change over time, and working with affected women and men, treating them with respect, and educating and informing them of the health consequences of genital surgery, it becomes more possible to bring about positive change, and for people to start saying no to harmful traditional practices.

For more information look at:

The Inter-African Committee on traditional practices: http://www.iac-ciaf.com/index.htm

The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project: http://www.fgmnetwork.org/index.php (visit their bookstore for a wide range of books on the subject)

One book I would recommend is ‘Possessing the secret of Joy’ by Alice Walker: a novel about the life of a woman called Tashi and her experiences